2012 BIO II SPRING EXAM 2

maintenance of stable internal conditions

nervous and endocrine systems control what systems?

communication

a stable internal environment of extracellular fluid

to produce energy
aerobic

ph level changes

maintaining parts of the internal environment

set point
feedback information
error signal
effectors

a reference point
ex. 98.6 is set point for healthy body

what is happening in the system

any difference between the set point and feedback information

effect changes in the internal environment
- ex. to get back to set point

they are controlled systems because they are controlled by regulatory systems

1. obtain, integrate, and process information
2. issue commands to controlled systems
3. contain sensors to provide feedback informaitn that is compared to the set point

set point

1. negative feedback
2. positive feedback
3. feedforward information

- set point: 65 mph
- feedback: speedometer
- error signal: going to fast
- feedforward: anticipating deer
- regulatory system: central nervous system
- effector: stepping on brake
- end result: slowing down

1. causes effectors to reverse the influence that creates an error signal
2. returns a variable to its set point

ex temp, programmed heater in house

1. amplifies a response
2. increses deviation from a set point

ex. fever, blood clot, labor

anticipates internal changes and changes the set point

ex. dear and car

organs that serve specific functions

physiological systems

tissues

cells

1. epithelial
2. muscle
3. connective
4. nervous

sheets of tightly connected epithelial cells
- form skin and line hollow organs

ex. mouth, stomach
- highly mitotic
-many layers
-tightly packed

1. secrete substances, like hormones
2. move substances with cilia
3. act as chemical receptors
4. create boundaries
5. control filtration and transport (kidneys)

epithelial tissue

epithelial tissue

1. skeletal
2. cardiac
3. smooth

muscle tissue

responsible for locomotion and other body movements (breathing, shivering)

muscle tissue

makes up the heart and is responsible for the heartbeat and blood flow

muscle tissue

involved in movement and generation of forces in internal organs (gut, blood vessels)

skeletal muscle cells

dispersed cells in an extracellular matrix that they secrete

1. collagen
2. elastin

strong and resistant to stretch, supports skin and connections between muscles and bones

can be stretched and then recoils; found in tissues that stretch (lungs, arteries)

1. bone
2. adipose tissue
3. blood
4. cartilage

connective tissue

provides support and is hardened by calcium phosphate deposition in the matrix

connective tissue

includes adipose cells that form and store lipids

connective tissue

consists of cells in a very liquid extracelllular matrix, the blood plasma

blood plasma

connective tissue

provides structural support and is flexible: has chondrocytes; cells that secrete teh extracellular matrix

chondrocytes

1. neurons
2. glia

nerous tissues

incode informatino as electrical impulses that travel over axons to their targets

chemical signals from the neuron stimulate a response in the target cell/effector, via receptor

connective tissue
cartilage

nervous tissue

nervous tissue

1. epthelial tissue
2. connective tissue
3. muscle tissue (smooth in this case)
4. nervous tissue

they are temperature sensitive
rates increase as temps increase

rate increases as they are temp sensitive

acclimatize to colder water by expressing different enzymes

they express different enzymes

yes

have external sources of heat

ex. lizard

regluate temperature by producing heat metabolically or by actively losing heat

ex. mouse

can behave either as an ectotherm or an endotherm

1. resting metabloic rate
2. total energy expenditure when at rest
3. response to changs in environmental temperatures

an endotherm will increase its metabolic rate to maintain its body temp in cold

both endotherms and ectotherms use behavioral regulation to maintain body temp (move into sun)

1. radiation
2. conduction
3. convection
4. evaporation

heat transfer via infrared radiation (stand in front of fire)

heat transfer by direct contact
(lying on hot rock)

heat transfer through a surrounding medium (wind chill factor)

heat transfer through evaporation of water from a surface (sweating)

balance of heat production and heat exchange

must equal loss via radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation

Heat in = Heat out

blood flow to skin

iguana controls blood flow to reduce heat loss in ocean

heart rate goes down as temp goes down

1. vasodilatation
2. vasoconstriction

increases blood flow to skin

decreases blood flow to skin

fur on animals - retains body heat

they produce heat metabolically in muscles, but most is lost as blood travels over gills

oxygenated blood travels from teh gills to the aorta and is distributed to organs and muscles

have smaller aorta and cold oxgygenated blood flows instead in vessels under teh skin

these vessels are close to the blood vessels returning warm blood to the gills and heat flows into colder blood

countercurrent heat exchanger

heat exchange between blood vessels carrying blood in opposite directions

keeps heat within muscle mass, enables body temp to be above water temp, which increases power output (maybe faster swimer)

even though ectotherm - they can produce heat to raise their body temp

- contracting their flight muscles
- grouping (honeybees)

by changing their metabolic rate - the rate in which they comsume O2 and produce CO2

the rate in which they comsume O2 and produce CO2
- ex bears hibernation

metabolic rate is low and independent of temperature

metabolic rate of a resting animal at a temperature within the termoneutral zone

- measured while animals are quietly resting
-correlated with body size and environmental temp

- BMR per gram tissue INCREASES as animals get smaller

inside - animal can adapt without much energy

outside - responses require bigger metabolic increases

producing heat and reducing heat loss

1. shivering
2. nonshivering

skeletal muscles contract and release energy from ATP as heat

occurs in adipose tissue called brown fat - the protein thermogenin causes heat release by altering ATP production

found in babies, squirrels between shoulder blades

protein in brown fat that causes heat release by altering ATP production

nonshivering

white fat- few organelles and limited blood supply

brown fat - more vascular, high in mitrochondria

1. smaller surface area
2. rounder body shape
3. shorter appendages

reduce surace area to volume ratio

1. increased thermal isulation with fur, feathers, fat
2. ability to decrease blood flow by constricting blood vessels
3. use of contercurrent heat exchange in blood flow to appendages

body temp rises

-constricting blood vessels to the skin
-increasing metabolic rate

lower body temp

-dilating blood vessels to the skin
- sweating or panting

hypothesis: heating or cooling the mammalian hypothalamus results in corresponding and predictable changes in body temp

method - squirrel - probe

conclusion: ground squirrel hypothalamus acts as a thermostat. when cooled activates metabolic heat production; when warmed, it suppresses metabolic heat productino and favors heat loss

negative feedback signal

- variability from its set point can trigger thermoregulatory responses

1. change in skin temp
2. wakefulness or sleep
3. circadian rhythm: daily internal cycle

it is raised for short period

fever is a rise in body temperature by these

a fever-producing substance
-by body or by other organisms

come from foreign substances; bacteria or viruses

produced by immune cells in response to infection

state of below-normal temp

means of survival

ex. small endotherms, like humming birds, can lower their temperature during inactive periods to conserve energy

ex. small endotherms, like humming birds, can lower their temperature during inactive periods to conserve energy

hibernation

daily torpor - during inactive periods
hibernation - long lasting

80% obese

natural selection resulted in low BMR, efficient genes for fate conversion, adn western lifestyle

derive their nutrition by eating other organisms
-depend on the autotrophs synthesis and have adapted to take advantage of it.

animals are these

sytehsize their necessary nutrients

amount of heat to raise 1 gram water 1 degree

1000 cal or Calorie

Energy in = Energy out

everyone is on a diet!

1300-1500 kcal/day

physical activity

fat: 9.5 kcal /gram
carbs: 4.2 kcal/gram
protein: 4.1 kcal/gram

carbohydrates are stored in liver and muscle cells as glycogen - enough for day's energy needs

fat - stores more energy per gram and with little water - more compact

too little food taken in

the metabolism of the body's own molecules begins:
1. protein is lost rapidly to protein synthesis
2. glycogen and fat are broken down

edema - classic sign of kwashiorkor (disease)

after fat stores are exhausted, protein stores (muscle) are used as a great rate - basically muscle of stomach are brocken down and cannot support organs in belly

more food taken in than needed and excess is stored as increased body mass

1. glycogen reserves are built up
2. extra carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are coverted to body fat

a handful

2 serving protein
3 dairy
3-5 fruits/vegies
6-12 grains

elements required in large amounts
ex calcium

elements reuired in tiny amounts

iron

carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized
- species-specific
- water-soluable or fat soluable (AEDK)

AEDK

1. saprobes
2. detritivores
3. preditors

absorb nutrients from dead organic matter

mushroom

actively feed on dead organic matter

crows, flys, lobster

feed on living organisms

lion

herbivores
carnivores
omnivores
filter feeders
fluid feeders

consume plants

prey on animals

prey on both

filter small organisms from an aquatic environment

include mosquitoes

1. incisors
2. canines
3. molars or premolars

used for cutting chopping gnawing

stabbing gripping ripping

shearing, crushing, grinding

in mouth - salivary amylase breaks down carbohydrates ph7

breaks down carbohydrates pH7

typhosole - longitudinal infolding of the intestinal wall

relatiely short intestine, but the lower region (ilium) has an internal structure - the spiral valve- that increases surface area

sheer length of tubular small intestine, folding of its lining, fingerlike villi, and microvilli cover the villi

all increase surface area

waves of smooth muscle contraction along digestive tract.

-mechanical breakdown of food to small subunits

proteins digested in stomach - ph 2-3

carbs: in mouth - ph 7 with amylase

proteins: in stomach ph 2-3

fats: bile makes more water soluable, digested in small intestine ph 6-7

Peristalsis

includes small intestine

controls digestion, autonomic nervous system

parasympathetic

controls digestion

bile

flows though the hepatic duct to the duodenum and through a branch to the gall bladder

bile flows through here

gall bladder

fat entering the duodenum signals the gallbladder to contract and secrete bile

makes fat more water soluable so they can be broken down by enzymes in small intestine

starch to maltose

salivary glands

proteins - peptides; autocatalysis

stomach

starch maltose

pancreas

fats - fatty acids and glycerol

pancreas

nucleic acids - nucleotides

pancreas

proteins - peptides; zymogen activation

pancreas

proteins - peptides

pancreas

peptides - shorter peptides and amino acids

pancreas

peptides - shorter peptides and amino acids

small intestine

dipeptides - amino acids

small intestines

trypsinogen - trypsin

small intestine

nucleic acids - nucleotides

small intestine

maltose - glucose

small intestine

lactose - galactose and glucose

small intestine

sucrose - fructose and glucose

small intestine

salivary amylase

starch to maltose

pepsin

proteins to peptides; autocatalysis

pancreatic amylase
lipase
nuclease
trypsin
chrymotrypsin
carboxypeptidase

aminopeptidase
dipeptidase
enterokinase
nuclease
maltase
lactase
sucrase

large intestine or colon

- named for diamater and not length
- most of digestion is complete
- water is reabsorbed. Feces stored.
- bacteria reside here who synthesize vitamins (B&K) and breakdown some cellulose release gas

4 chambered stomach
1. rumen
2. reticulum
3. omasum
4. abomasum - true stomach

ruminant 1st chamber
- abundant cellulose-fermenting micro-organisms

carbohydrates are digested here

ruminant 2nd chamber
- abundant cellulose-fermenting micro-organisms

carbohydrates are digested here

ruminant 3rd chamber
concentrated by water absorbtion

ruminant 4th chamber
true stomach
- secreting HCl and proteases
- microorganisms killed by HCl
- digested by proteases
-passed on to small intestine for further digestion

microbial fermentation chamber which empties into large intestine

- size dependent - we have appendix

contains small stones
muscular organ for grinding
no need for teeth

similar to a stomach - storage container
- enables ingestion of large amounts of food at one time

produced in adipocytes and send signals of satiety to hypothalamus

mice who cannot produce the satiety signal leptin will not become obese if they are able to obtain leptin from an outside source

method - connect two mice, one WT, one with receptor, one without receptor for leptin - connected by circulatory systems - eat at will

conc: The protein leptin is a satiety signal that acts to prevent overeating and resultant obesity

mouth - carbohydrates - amylase

stomach - proteins - pepsin

bile makes fat more water soluable so that it can be digested in small intestine

to break down cellulose - mammals do not have an enzyme to break down cellulose

mouth - ph 7
stomach - ph 2-3
small intestine - ph 6-7

enzymes speed up reactions - and are optimal in different ph environments. If put into a different ph environment then the tertiary shape of that enzyme would change and it would not work as intended - digestion would slow or stop

they are transported by diffusion down their concentration gradient

respiratory gases

concentration of a gas in a mixture

atmospheric pressure at seal level

760 mmHg

159 mmHg

20.9% of 760 mmHg

in a mixture of gases each individual gas exerts a pressure that sums to the atmospheric pressure

air

1. O2 content of air is higher than that of water

2. O2 diffuses much faster through air

3. air and water must be moved by the animal over its gas exhange; requires more energy to move water than air

limited their size and shape of species without internal systems of gas exchange

these species have evolved:
1. larger surface areas
2. central cavities
3. specialized respiratory systems

increased: body temp and metabolic rate rise

decreased: body temp and metabolic rate lower

animal's need for oxygen is increased while the available oxygen decreases in teh wamer water

find them in deep cold water
- need for oxygen high, higher metabolic rate

large

1. increased surface area
2. maximized partial pressure gradients
3. minimized diffusion path length

1. external gills
2. internal gills
3. lungs
4. tracheae

also minimize the diffusion path length of O2 and CO2 in water

protected from predators and damage

internal cavities for respiratory gas exchange with air

air-filled tubes in insects

1. minimization of the diffision path length
2. ventilation
3. perfusion

active moving of the respiratory medium over the gas exchange surfaces

circulating blood over the gas exchange surfaces

made up of the gas exchange surfaces and mechanisms for ventilation and perfusion of those surfaces

1. external gills
2. indernal gills
3. lungs
4. tracheae

in the abdomen

open to allow gas exchange

close to limit water loss

tracheae

tracheoloes

air capillaries

air capillaries

countercurrent flow

water flows unidirectionally into mouth, over the gills, and out from under the opercular flaps

supported by gill arches - lie between the mouth and the opercular flaps

water leaves under these after traveling through fish mouth and over gills

1. maximize PO2 on the external gill surfaces
2. maximizes blood circulation
3. minimizes PO2 on teh internal surfaces

optimizes the PO2 gradient

exchange is more complete

gradient of O2 saturation exists over the full length of exchange surfaces

gill filaments that are covered by folds, or lamellae

they are the site of gas exchange adn minimize the diffusion path length between blood and water

bird lungs use unidirectional air flow

air sacs that receive inhaled air - but are not used for gas exchange

air enters trachea, divides into bronchi -> parabronchi -> air capillaries where oxygen is absorbed

keep air moving through the lungs in a continuous and unidirectional flow

1. air flows unidirectionally through the parabronchi
2. inhalation expands the air sacs and exhalation compresses them: fresh air is forced out and passes over the lungs

hypothesis: air flow in birds lungs is tidal, with air sacs and lungs filling and emptying with each breath

method - burst of pure O2 - followed through with oxygen sensors

conclusion - hypothesis not supported - air travels through the lungs in one directino, from teh posterior to the anterior air sacs. two cycles of inhalation and exhalation are required.

water

falls

decreases

diffusion only

tidal

air flows in and out by the same path

the amount of air that moves in and out per breath, at reast is measured by a spriometer (500mL)

additional amounts of air that we can inhale or exhale

tidal volume + IRV + ERV

the air that cannot be expelled from the lungs

vital capacity + residual volume

does not permit contercurrent gas exchange

reduces PO2

1. an enourmous surface area
2. a very short path length for diffusion

group of cells with cilia that sweep the mucus and particles out of the airways

alveoli

produced in alveoli to reduce surface tension so less force is needed to inflate

diffusion

no ATP used- all based on concentration

a right and left thoracic cavity

diaphragm

pleural membrane

also covers the pleural space

P=1/V

volume increases
pressure decreases
air moves in

diaphragm contracts and moves down

greater pressure outside forces air in

intercostal muscles play a role too

volume decreases
pressure increases
air moves out

siphragm stops contracting and relaxes

created in the pleural space when the volume increases in the thoracic cavity

the slight negative pressure keeps the alveoli inflated between breaths

hemoglobin

protein with four polypeptide subunits - binds with O2

each polypeptide surrounds a heme group that can bind a molecule of O2

one molecule of hemoglobin can bind of to four molecules of O2

can bind one O2 molecule

depends on the PO2 of the environment

if high - pick up lots (up to 4)
if low - then will be released

relationship is S shaped

one subunit binds and changes shape, making it easeir for the next one to bind - the affinity for O2 is increased

when 3 subunits are bound, a larger increase in PO2 is needed

positive cooperativity

muscle

birds - llamas - need to be at high altitude

70%

HCO3
bicarbonate

5% in blood plasma
20% combines with hemoglobin
75% as HCO3 in blood capillaries

hypothesis: rising levels of CO2 during exercise is the feedback signal that stimulate an increase in respiratory rate

method: dogs run on treadmills at different speeds, then at different elevations (increased workload) - COS monitored

respiratory rate plotted against CO2 conc

conc: arterial CO2 level is the metabolic feedback signal that regulates respiration in response to workload

no -

1. single celled organisms exhange directly with the environment
2. structures and body shapes allow exchange between cells and the environment

open and closed

This means
that the blood is not held inside vessels or capillaries. Instead, it goes through a only few blood vessels and then is pumped right
into the body cavity...bathing the cells that need oxygen

grasshoppers
clams
worms

A "closed
circulatory system" is one in which the blood stays inside of blood
vessels (like veins, arteries, capillaries, etc.) at all times - i.e. the
blood never comes into direct contact with the rest of the cells in the
body.

1. fluid can flow more rapidly through vessels
2. having the ability to change resistance in some vessels allow blood to be directed to specific tissues
3. specialized cells and large molecules that aid in transport of hormones and nutrients can be compartmentalized
4. can support higher levels of metabolic activity in smaller organisms

closed
2 chambered heart

closed
double circuit systems with a 3-chambered heart

blood destined for tissues heads directly to aorta and is under higher pressure

closed
double-circuit systems with 3-chambered heart, 2 aortas

has septum - when breathing air blood is pumped to lungs, when not breathing most blood pumped to right aorta

closed
double-circuit systems with a 4-chambered heart and two aortas

has septum - allows to hold breath for long time

closed
double-circuit systems with 4-chambered hear, one aorta

1. blood can not mix, systemic circuit always receives oxygenated blood
2. respiratory gas exchange is maximized
3. separate systems can operate at different P

blue (low O2) low pressure
red (high O2) high pressure

resting heart beat

contracting heart beat

the ventricles contract the atrioventricular valves close and pressure int eh ventricles builds up until the aortic and plumonary valves open

the ventricles relax, pressure in teh ventricles falls at the end of systole adn since pressure is now greater int eh aorta and pulmonary artery, the aortic and pulmonary valves slam shut

cause depolarization which signals the muscle cells to contract

carry blood away from the heart

carry blood toward the heart

elastin layer under smooth muscle and over smooth muscle

heart, arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, heart

veins - they have valves that prevent back flow

muscle contraction also helps pump blood

cuff is inflated beyond the point that shuts off all blood flow

systolic first beat you hear
diastolic last beat you can hear

in between is pulse pressure

fluid is squeezed out by blood pressure and pulled back in by osmotic pressure

end with high O2 of capillary

end with low O2 of capillary

1. water, salts, plasma proteins

water - solvent

salts - osmotic balance, ph buffering, regulation of membrane potentials

plasma proteins - osmotic balance, ph buffering, clotting, immune response

1. nutrients
2. waste products of metabolism
3. respiratory gases
4. hormones
5. heat

1. erythrocytes (red)
2. leukocytes (white)
3. platelets

5-6 million

5k - 10k

250k - 400k

transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide

destroy foreign cells, produce antibodies, roles in allergic responses

blood clotting

hemoglobin

fish

amphibian

reptile

reptile
crocodile

bird and mammal

bird and mammal

fluid similar to plasma but does not have plasma proteins

aka lymphatics

carries lymph from peripheral tissues to the venous system

1. lymph
2. lymphatic vessels
3. lymphoid tissues and lymphoid organs
4. lymphocytes, phagocytes, and other immune system cells

1. barriers
2. non-specific defense
3. specific defense

skin, eyes, nose, mouth, hair
cilia in lungs, tears, saliva

these will be used on any invader

example is fever, phagocytes, inflammation, coughing, sneezing

antibodies

-specifically matches the surface proteins

phagocytic cells
natural killer cells

both white blood cells

both non-specific denfense

neutrophils and macrophages

engulf and kill invading organisms

kill virus-infected cells and cancer cells

make up 20-30% of circulating leukocytes

most are stored, not circulating

1. T cells
2. B cells
3. NK cells

thymus-dependent

bone marrow-derived

natural killer cells

non-specific defense

macrophages release chemicals called pyrogens, which travel to the hypothalamus in the brain and rase the body's temperature set point

-this produces fever, which inhibits the growth of invading pathogenns

self from non-self

-during development, emryos develop immunological tolerance

by the proteins on the surface of all cells

particular proteins in teh major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

6 genes, 100 alleles each

1. can distinguish self from non-self
2. specificity
3. diversity
4. immunological memory

the response is directed at specific prganisms based on a recognition of molecules (antigenic determinants) on the surface of hte invading organism

the human immune system can respond to as many as 10 million different antigenic determinants

the system can remember certain antigenic determinants and respond more quickly

any molecule that can initiate a specific immune responses

a protein produced by teh immune system that can bind to a specific antigen

immunity acquired because of the production of specific antibodies against a pathogenic organism

this antibody binds to a a specific antigen on the surface of the pahtogen

immunity acquired because of antibodies produced elsewhere

mother to child (breast milk)
through injection (rabies treatment)

most common antibody
monomer

-free in blod plasma
-about 80 percent of circulating antibodies

-most abundant antibody in primary and secondary immune responses
-crosses placenta and provides passive immunization

allergies

secreted by plasma cells in skin and tisues lining gastrointestinal and respiratory tracts

monomer

bound to antigens - binds to mast cells and basophils to trigger the release of histamine that contributes to inflammation adn some allergic responses

one gene - one protein

(total of 25000 genes)

144000 variable region
144000 constant region

144k x 144k ...20billion

plasma cells

NOT B cells

macrophages
B cells
T cells
Memory cells

first responders to the site of the infection

they engulf and digest the invading pathogen

differentiate to plasma cells which produce antibodies

stimulate the production of a clone of B cells

three types:
1. helper T cells
2. cytotoxic T cells
3. Suppressor T cells

1. helper T cells
2. cytotoxic T cells
3. Suppressor T cells

provide lifelong immunity

1. helper T cells
2. cytotoxic T cells

1. antigen is engulfed by microphage and present class II MHC protein from antigen
2. cytokines from macrophage activate T cell
3. T cells interact with presented protein on microphage
4. cytokines from T cell stimulate proliferation
5. Helper T cell proliferates adn forms clones

6. binding of antigen triggers display of antigen
7. cytokines activate B cell proliferation
8. B cells proliferate and differentiate into memory cells and plasma cells

activation phase
effector phase

1. intracellular protein fragment
2. class I
3. cytotoxic T cell
4. CD8

1. fragments from extracellular proteins
2. class II
3. helper T cells
4. CD4

B cells are the basis of the humoral immune response

first make an antibody that is expressed as a receptor protein on the cell surface

if an antigen binds to the receptor, the B cell becomes a plasma cell, which makes antibodies secreted to the blood stream - also gives rise to a clone army of plasma and memory cells

mostly bacterial infections

cell mediated immune response

humoral infections

activation phase
effector phase

1. viral antigen presented by MHC 1
2. Cytotoxic T cells interact and interpret Clas I MHC protein
3. Tc cell proliferates and forms clones

4. again recognizes
5. perforin release
6. infected cell is lysed

primary and secondary responses

peak response can take 2 weeks to develop, declines rapidly

activates memory B cells

at lower antigen concentrations than original B cells

secretes antibodies in massive quantities

inoculation with a pathogen modified so it doesn't cause disease

-this triggers antibody production so that when exposed to the pathogen in the future, you will go into a secondary response

kill the pathogen by heating it

modify the pathogen to reduce its virulence

produce proteins that mimic antigens on the surface of a pathogen, but do not cause disease

inactivation
attenuation
recombinant DNA

recognize self antigens to suppress immune response

maintains homeostasis by mediating tolerance to self antigens

autoimmunity results

antigen shifting

when virus RNA/DNA is duplicated, it is not checked for accuracy...errors develop

an immune response directed at self cells

an autoimmune response against cells of the pancreas that produce insulen
(usually follows viral infection - ex. influenza)

1. antigen shifting
2. HIV
3. autoimmune diseases
4. type I diabetes
5. allergic reaction

In vertebrates, the fluid waste product containing the toxic nitrogenous by-products of protein and amino acid metabolism.

The functional unit of the kidney, consisting of a structure for receiving a filtrate of blood and a tubule that reabsorbs selected parts of the filtrate.

A hormone released by the atrial muscle fibers of the heart when they are overly stretched, which decreases reabsorption of sodium by the kidney and thus blood volume.

An aquatic animal that equilibrates the osmolarity of its extracellular fluid that is the same as with that of the external environment.

In vertebrates, a tubule that receives urine produced in the nephrons of the kidney and delivers that fluid to the ureter for excretion.

In most mammals, the canal through which urine is discharged from the bladder and which serves as the genital duct in males.

In animals, the outer tissue of certain organs

Cells of Bowman's capsule of the nephron that cover the capillaries of the glomerulus, forming filtration slits.

A type of protonephridium found in insects.

Long, hairpin loop of the mammalian renal tubule that runs from the cortex down into the medulla and back to the cortex; creates a concentration gradient in the interstitial fluids in the medulla.

The mechanism that increases the concentration of the interstitial fluid in the mammalian kidney through countercurrent flow in the loops of Henle and selective permeability and active transport of ions by segments of the loops of Henle.

A steroid hormone produced in the adrenal cortex of mammals. Promotes secretion of potassium and reabsorption of sodium in the kidney.

A structural unit of the kidney that collects filtrate from the blood, reabsorbs specific ions, nutrients, and water and returns them to the blood, and concentrates excess ions and waste products such as urea for excretion from the body.

Blood vessels that parallel the loops of Henle and the collecting ducts in the renal medulla of the kidney.

The portion of a renal tubule from where it reaches the renal cortex, just past the loop of Henle to where it joins a collecting duct.

Relating to the kidneys.

A pair of excretory organs in vertebrates.

Regulation of the chemical composition of the body fluids of an organism.

The inner, core region of an organ.

A compound that serves as the main excreted form of nitrogen in some animals, particularly those which must conserve water, such as birds, insects, and reptiles.

Sites in the kidney where blood filtration takes place, consisting of a knot of capillaries served by afferent and efferent arterioles.

The concentration of osmotically active particles in a solution.

Pertaining to an organism in which the final product of the breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds is uric acid.

Pertaining to an organism in which the final product of breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds is ammonia.

The initial segment of a renal tubule, closest to the glomerulus.

Long duct leading from the vertebrate kidney to the urinary bladder or the cloaca.

Release of metabolic wastes by an organism.

An elaboration of the renal tubule, composed of podocytes, that surrounds and collects the filtrate from the glomerulus.

The excretory organ of flatworms, made up of a tubule and a flame cell.

Pertaining to an organism in which the final product of the breakdown of nitrogen-containing compounds is urea.

The paired excretory organs of annelids.

A state of dormancy and hypometabolism that occurs during the summer; usually a means of surviving drought and/or intense heat.

A structure in which urine is stored until it can be excreted to the outside of the body.

A compound that is the main excreted form of nitrogen by many animals, including mammals.

A peptide hormone that raises blood pressure by causing peripheral vessels to constrict. Also maintains glomerular filtration by constricting efferent vessels and stimulates thirst and the release of aldosterone.

label

what type of excretory system

1. volume
2. concentration
3. compositions of the extracellular fluid

# of moles of active solutes/ L solvent

1. excretion of solutes that are in excess (NaCl)
2. conserving solutes that are valuable or in short supply (glucose)

both water and salts

salts and excrete excess water

water and excrete salt

maintain osmolarities lower than that of seawater (300 mosm/l)

brine shrimp
change their osmolarity to match that of its environment (to an extent)


high osmolarity:
brine shrimp pump out CL- through gills, NA+ follows

low osmolarity:
transport of Cl- is reversed

allow their ionic composition to match the environment

conserve some ions and excrete others to maintain ionic composition

ex - sea birds have nasal salt glands that excrete NaCl

nitrogen

nitrogenous waste

ammonotelic

most common nitrogenous waste - VERY toxic

bony fishes, aquatic invertebrates

ureotelic

results in large water loss

mammals, amphibians, cartilagious fishes

uricotelic

insoluble in water and precipitates out of the urine with little water loss

birds, insects, reptiles

uric acid: caffiene and metabolism of nucleac acids

ammonia: regulates pH of extracellular fluid by buffering urine

1. protonephridia
2. metanephridia
3. Malpighian tubes

tubule and flame cell

1. ciliam beat, creating negative pressue, which moves fluid into tubule
2. as fluid moves, it is modified by secretion and reabsorbtion
3. exits through exretory pore on side of flatworm

tuberlaria

A. blood under pressure gets filtered into the coelem.
1. coelomic fluid enters the metranephridium through a nephrostome
2. the tubule cells of the metanephridium alter the composition of the fluid as it flows through the tubule
3. producing a dilute urine that is excreted through the neprhidopore

annalids

1. uric acid, NA+ and K+ are transported into teh malpighian tubules
H20 follows
2. contents of the tubule are dischrarged into the gut
3. some Na+ and K+ are actively transported form teh hindgut and rectum back to teh coelomic fluid...H2O follows
4. uric acid precipitates in rectum and is exreted along with urine

insects

1. kidney - main excrestory organ
2. nephron - functinoal unit of kidney

they filter large volumes of blood and achieve bulk reabsorbtion

period of very low metabolic activity and low water demand

frog - fills bladder with dilute urine and then reabsorps the H2O during period of estivation back into blood

1. amniotic egg
2. lungs
3. scales
4. exretion of nitrogenous wastes as uric acid...very little water loss

1. surface coverings to reduce water loss
2. amniotic reproduction
3. birds produce uric acid
4. both produce concetrated urine

a knot of capillaries is the site of blood filtration

recieves the glomerular filtrate

carries blood from the glomerule

artriole supplies blood under pressure to the glomerus

cells after composition of glomerule filtrate through the reabsorption and secretion of solutes

bring materials to the tubules that will be secreted into the urine and carry away reabsorped substances

drains the peritubular capillaries

in the glomerus

1. afferent arteriole
2. efferent arteriole

peritubular capillaries - surround the tubule and serve as exchange sites

capsule cells that contact the glomerular capillaries - prevent large molecules from leaving capillaries

filtrate that lacks cells and molecules

high capillary blood pressure

high permeability of glomerular capillaries and their podocytes

molecules from the tubule fluid go back into the blood

substances move back into the tubule form teh peritubular capillaries

filter blood and produce urine

duct form the kidney that leads to the urinary bladder

tube for urine excretion

the renal artery, renal vein and ureter

renal pyramids

internal core of the kidney

outer layer of the kidney

filtrate enters through (from glomerus) into the bowman's capsule

enters the proxial convoluted tubule

enters the loop of henle

enters the distal convoluted tubule

enters the collecting duct in the cortex

empty into pelvis (bladder)

afferent arterioles - glomeruli - efferent arterioles - peritubular capillaries (vasa recta)

the veous system (renal vein)

most reabsorption of water and solutes

have lots of microvilli to increase surface area

actively transport NA+, glucose, adn amino acids

water follows

contercurrent multiplier mechanism in the loops of henle

tubuele fluid flows in opposite directions in the ascending and descending limbs

loops increase osmolarity of interstituial fluid in a graduated way

actively transports Na+ (Cl- follows) and raises their concentratino int eh interstitial fluid

loses water to the neighboring interstitial fluid with high NA+ and Cl- concentration

receives concentrated fluid from descending limb and allows diffusion of Na+ and Cl- into the interstitial fluid

less

create concetration gradient

membrane proteins abundent in highly water permeable areas, such as the PCT and the descending loops of Henle

urea

rgulate pH

HCO3 ions - major buffers in blood, formed by hydration of CO2 followed by dissociation of carbonic acid (H2CO3)

physiology

CO2

acid protion of hte reactions
CO2 goes up: {H+} goes up...pH goes down

base portion by removing H+ and adding HCO3

1. 4.5-8
2. 855 - 1335 mOsm/L
3. 700 - 2000mL /day
4. clear - yellow
5. none, sterile

180 L

99%

1. salt and water (high blood pressure)
2. urea (uremic poisoning)
3. metabolic acids (acidosis)

dialysis treatement

passes blood through membrane channels bathed in a plama like solution to remove wastes

constant glomerular filtration rate

ensure blood supply and blood pressure

maintains glomerular blood pressure

kidney releases angiotensin

constricts efferent renal arterioles and peripheral blood vessels to raise blood pressue

aldosterone - increase Na+ uptake, stimulates thirst to increase blood volue and bressue

increase Na+ uptake, stimulates thirst to increase blood volue and bressue

stimulate ADH release to conserve body water

antidiuretic hormone
- increases the permeability of membranes to water
- hypothalamus can stimulate the release - also called vasopressin

stretch receptors in aorta and carotid arteries will inhibit ADH if blood pressure increases

less water absorption leading to lower blood volume and pressure

when ADH is detected, AQP-2 is inserted into the membranes of the cells and increases their permeability to water

peter agre, nobel prize 2003
john hopkins

atrial muscle fibers release atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

decreases the reabsorption of the Na+ in the kidney

decreases blood volume and pressure