Anatomy Final (spring)

in adults, water is __% of weight for women, __% for men of the body

why do women have less body water than men?

why do men have more body water than women

infants are __% or more water

older adults are __% water because__

fluid in cells; 60-66% of fluid

30-40%; body's internal environment

fluid portion of the blood

fluid between tissue cells

plasma, interstitial fluid, lymph, CSF, eye humors, synovial fluid, serous fluid, GI secretions make up __

have mainly covalent bonds that prevent dissociation in water and they therefore have no electrical charge; organic molecules like glucose, lipids, creatinine, urea

primarily inorganic salts; inorganic and organic acids and bases, some proteins

electrolytes have more osmotic power because of __

measure of electrolyte concentrations of body fluids

ICF has more __ than ECF

ECF has more __

maintains the concentration gradients of ECF and ICF

__ controls movement of fluids between compartments

molecular size, charge and need for active transport limits __ but not water

__ exchanges across capillaries (hydrostatic forces out and colloid osmotic pressure pulls back in)

__ exchanges rely on selectively permeable membranes of cells; ions are restricted by AT while nutrients, gases, wastes move in one direction

fluid volumes may change, but __ remain constant between ECF and ICF because water moves freely

daily water intake is generally __ mL/day

__% of your water come from liquids

__% of water comes form food

__% of water is produced by cellular metabolism (metabolic water or water of oxidation

__% of water vaporizes from lungs or diffuses through the skin (insensible water loss)

__% of water vaporizes form perspiration

__% of water is lost in feces

__% of water is lost through the kidneys

increase in __ causes thirst and ADH release

the thirst mechanism is not well __

a decrease in plasma volume of __% or more or increase in osmolarity by __% stimulates thirst center in the hypothalamus

not controllable; insensible and sensible water loss

the kidneys must excrete __ mosm of solutes to maintain blood homeostasis and must remove them in water

water output is primarily regulated by __ concentration because of obligatory osmolarity

when water loss exceeds intake (due to hemorrhage, burns, vomiting, diarrhea, sweating, diuretics, lack of intake, or diabetes)

cellular overhydration or water intoxication

to reverse hypotonic hydration, __ or __ is infused

accumulation of fluid in interstitial spaces.

increased BP, hydrostatic pressure due to bad valves, vessel blockage, hypertension, heart failure, and high blood volume cause __

__ and __ compose 90-95% of all solutes in ECF; 280 mosm; 142 mEq Na in ECF

__ drive osmotic pressure

the membrane is nearly impermeable but some electorlytes diffuse in and are pumped out which controls __ and __

large volumes move __ between body secretions and ECF (digestive secretions, bile, saliva)

__% of sodium in renal filtrate is reabsorbed in the PCT and __% in the loop even without aldosterone

with __, virtually all CaCl reabsorbed actively in DCT and collecting ducts; water usually follows ,but sodium-free urine can be eliminated to maintain water balance

without __, there is no absorption beyond the loop of Henle; this ALWAYS results in the excretion of __

the __ triggers aldosterone

caused by hypoaldosteronism; lose much salt and water

senses whenGFR rises due to blood volume rise; this phenomenon resluts in sodium and water output and vice versa

hypothalamic osmoreceptors detect ECF concentration

low sodium will inhibit __

an excess or deficit of __ can be fatal due to effects on the heart

part of the buffer system, hydrogen ions shifts cause corresponding __ shift in the opposite direction

__% of potassium is reabsorbed in teh __

__% of potassium is lost in urine

the potassium balance is controlled by the amount __ into filtrate by cortical collecting ducts

potassium levels are usually __ and are secreted

__ causes potassium secretion

the __ controls the secretions of potassium

potassium secretion goes alongside __ for electrolyte balance

high potassium stimulates the __ to release aldosterone

99% of __ is stored in bones

calcium in the blood is necesary for __, __, and __

__ strongly influences neuromuscular excitability

hypocalcemia increases __ and cuases __

hypercalcemia inhibits __

__ and __ control calcium levels

__% of calcium is reabsorbed

low plasma calcium stimulates __ release

PTH activates __

__ causes increased absorption of calcium by stimulating the kidneys to transform vitamin D to active form necessary for calcium absorption

__ causes calcium reabsoption by the renal tubules

__ is released due to high blood calcium

__ causes calcium salt deposition in bone and inhibits osteoclasts

calitonin plays a __ role compared to PTH

blood has a pH of __

ICF has a pH of __ due to acidic metabolites and CO2

condition where arterial pH is >7.45

condition where arterial pH is <7.35

physiogical acidosis is where the pH is __

hydrogen ion sources

CO2 releases hydrogen ions via __

chemical buffer systems help to __

what are two sites that help regulate acid-base balance?

how does the respiratory center in the brain stem regulate pH?

how does the renal system regulate pH?

strong acids dissociate completely and liberate __ while weak acids __ but can prevent pH changes

__ are proton acceptors

one or two molecules that prevent H+ concentration changes by binding H+ or releasing them

the main chemical acid-base buffer systems in the body

components are carbonic acid and its salt, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)

the __ buffer system is the only ECF buffer

HCL (strong acid) + NaHCO3 (weak base)---->H2CO3 (weak acid) + NaCl (salt); NaOh (strong base) + H2CO3 (weak acid) ----> NaHCO3 (weak base) + H20 are both examples of the __ buffer system

available bicarbonate ions available; if more acid is added, this loses the ability to control pH

__ regulated by the kidneys and carbonic acid equation are in ready supply from respiration

sodium salts of dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4^-) and monohydrogen phosphate (HPO4^2-), NaH2PO4 is weak acid and Na2HPO4 is weak base all make up the __

HCL + Na2PO4 ----> NaH2PO4 + NaCl; NaOH + HaH2PO4 ---> Na2HPO4 + H20 are both examples of the __ buffer system

the phosphate buffer sytem buffers __ and __ where phosphate concentrations are usually higher

the __ is 3/4 of the bodies buffering power in cells

R-COOH ---> R-COO^- + H+; R-NH2 + H+ ---> R-NH3+ are both examples of the __ buffer system

__ is something that binds H+ ions in the protein buffer system

the carbonic acid equation has __

the carbonic acid equation

during __, the respiratory center is depressed and vise versa

the respiratory system regulation of H+ is a __ buffering system

the respiratory system regulation of H+ is __ but has 1-2x the buffering power of all the chemical buffers combined

in the respiratory system regulation of H+, the buffers combine and the lungs expose of a volatile __

impairment of respiratory sytem causing retention of CO2

the renal mechanism of acid-base balance is driven by __

accumulation of metabolic acids

renal mechanisms of acid-base balance cause the excretion of __ (which has the same effect as gaining H+ ions)

renal mechanisms of acid-base balance cause the conservation or generation of new __ (same as losing H+ ion)

in bicarbonate reabsoption in the renal mechanisms __ must be maintained for buffering of blood

in bicarbonate reabsoption in the renal mechanisms __ are nearly imperable to bicarbonate ions and cannot reabsorb

in bicarbonate reabsoption in the renal mechanisms cells shunt bicarbonate produced in them into the __ and sodium follows (resulting from hydrogen ion secretion from cells)

respiratory acidosis or alkalosis means the __ are causing the problems

shallow breathing or gas exchange is hampered by pneumonia, cystic fibrosis or emphaysema and CO2 accumulates in the blood

hyperventilation or releasing CO2 faster than production; rare

ingestion of alcohol (acetic acid from metabolism of alcohol) or excessive loss of HCO3- due to diarrhea, etc. lactic acid accumulation, ketosis form diabetes or stavation; blood pH and HCO3- levels are low may cause

less common; vommiting of stomach acids, intake of bases or constipation may cause

__ depresses nervous system

__ over excites the nervous system

imbalance in the respiratory and renal compensations are due to __

changes in breathing rate and epth due to metabolic imbalances

PCO2 and bicarbonate levels are high if __ is occuring

high PCO2 is the cause __ and rising HCO3- reflecting __

__ results in high pH and low PCO2

infants have more problems because they have __ of the lungs, so dramatic changes in PCO2 occur with altered breathing

infants have more problems because they have a __ which may result in fluid shifts

infants have more problems because they have a __ yielding more metabolic wastes and acids plus buffer systems are not fully active

infants have more problems because they have a high rate of __

infants have more problems because their __ are inefficient

babies have more risks of dehydration and acidosis through the first __

functions of the reproductive system:

houses the testes, keeps the temperature 3 C lower than body temp for viable sperm production

layer of smooth muscle in superficial fascia; wrinkles skin of scrotum to keep cool

skeletal muscle from the internal oblique; elevates and lowers the testes to keep them at the right temperature

outer layer of the testes

the fibrous capsule that forms the septa of the testes

site of sperm production

takes sperm to the rete testis

around seminiferous tubules; produce androgens (TESTOSTERONE)

surrounds the testicular artery and absorbs heat from arterial blood before it enters the testis

made up of vessels, nerves, and the vas deferens

-3.8 cm
-has head, body, and tail regions
-is a coiled duct (6m or 20ft if uncoiled)

the epididymis has __, __, and __ regions

some of the epididymis's cells have __ to absorb excess nutrients and deliver nutrients to sperm

in __ days, sperm gain the ability to swim

-45 cm
-part of the spermatic cord into the pelvic cavity

in the vas deferens, the __ joins with the seminal vesicle duct to form the __

cutting and cauterizing of the vas deferens

the urethra's three layers are __, __, and __

most of the urethra is the __ layer

produce 60% of semen volume
-liquid is yellowish, viscous, alkaline fluid containing fructose, ascorbic acid, coagulating enzymes,a nd prostaglandins

why does fluid from the seminal vesicles contain fructose?

-encircles urethra inferior to bladder
-composed of 20-20 compound tubuloveolar glands

produces 1/3 of semen volume, the liquid is milky, slightly acidic, containing several enzymes that help activate sperm

-pea sized
-inferior to the prostate
-produce a fluid that is thick, clear, mucus that may neutralize acidic urine in the urethra

which of teh three glands releases its secretions first?

along with the testis, compose the external genitalia of males

the enlarged tip of the penis

around the glans penis unless removed by circumcision

contains spongy urethra and 3 columns of erectile tissue

surrounds the urethra and expands to form the glans penis

the penis has __ columns of erectile tissue

-paired dorsal columns
-compose most of the penis

surrounds each crus of the penis

__ decrease the viscosity of cervical mucus and cause reverse uterine peristalsis

__ and __ enhance sperm motility

a pH of __ in semen helps to neutralize the acidity of the vagina

antibiotic chemical in semen

__ factors cuase semen to coagulate and fibrinolysin liquefies so sperm can swim out

2-5 mL of semen contains __ million sperm per mL

due to engorgement of erectile bodies of the penis with blood

in an erection, __ allows the arterioles to dilate

during an erection, parasympathetic stimulation of the __ lubricate the glans penis

ejaculation is due to __ nervous system controls

during ejaculation, the bladder sphincter muscles __

during ejaculation, the __ muscles undergo a series of contractions

__ causes generalized muscle contractions, rise in heart rate, and elevated blood pressure

sperm formation occurs in the __

sperm formation begins around __ years old

__ million sperm are made per day

how does viagra work?

two consectutive divivsions producing 4 daughter cells with 1/2 the number of chromosomes

diploid chromsosomal number in humans

the 23 chromosomes in gametes is the __ number

phases of meiosis 1

synapsis occurs when replicated chormosomes align with homologues; produces tetrads of chromatids and crossovers may occur

alignment of the tetrads

sister chromatids remain as units and homologous chromosomes move to opposite ends of teh cell

the final outcome of meisosis I is : two copies of one member of homologous pair and none of the other and diploid DNA but haploid chromosomal number becasue pair of chromatids is a single unit; thus is called __

like mitosis but with no replication, equational division of meiosis

reduces chromosomal number by 1/2 and provides variability (crossovers and different combinations of paternal and maternal information

-forms type A and B cells
-type A daughter cells maintain germ cell line
-type B cells pushed toward lumen to become primary spermatocytes

in spermatogonia mitosis, type __ daughter cells maintain germ cell line

in spermatogonia mitosis, type __ cells pushed toward lumen to become primary spermatocytes

primary spermatocytes become secondary spermatocytes during __

secondary spermatocytes become spermatids

spermatids ---> sperm

during spermiogenesis spermatids are __

part of the spermatozoa: contains DNA and a crosone

part of the spermatozoa: mitochondria spiraled around contractive tail filaments

part of the spermatozoa: flagellum elaborated by centriole

bound to one antoher by tight junctions and divide seminiferous tubule into two compartments

formed by tight juncitons; spermatozoa are identical and recognized as self and can be influenced by blood-borne chemicals that prompt spermatogenesis

spermatogenesis takes __ days

__ controls FSH and LH release

stimulates spermatogenesis by stimulating sustentacular cells to release androgen-binding protein (ABP) that causes spermatogenic cells to bind and concentrate testosterone that stimulates spermatogenesis

binds interstitial cells and stimulates testosterone secretion

-secreted from sustentacular cells
-released when sperm count is hight to inhibit FSH and GnRH

__ also inhibits GnRh

GnRH release begins at __

__ is synthesized from cholesterol

duct, gland, and penis growth, and maintenance depends on __

-pubic, axillary, gacial hair
-larynx enlarges and voice deepens
-skin thickens and becomes oilier
-bone growth and increased density
-skeletal muscles increase in size and mass
-increases BMR and influences behavior
-creates sex drive

produce eggs, secrete estrogens and progesterone

__ support ovaries

layers of the ovaries:

cuboidal cells on the outside; continuous from peritoneum

__ contains oocytes

if an oocytes has a single layer it is a __

if a oocyte has more than one layer present it is a __

one layer of follicular cels around oocyte

two or more layers of granulosa cells around an oocyte

fluid filled space or antrium develops in oocyte

oocyte on a stalk of granulosa cells

when the oocyte is ejected from teh ovary

ruputed follicle transformed after ovulation

connected to uterus

around teh ovary; fertilization happens here

funnel-shaped, finger like projections (fibraiae ciliated

4 regions of teh uterus:

cervical canal opens to vagina via external OS and with uterus via internal OS

outer serous layer or visceral peritoneum

smooth muscle layer of uterine wall

mucosal lining of uterine wall

__ change lenth with thickness

uterine arteries from __

3-4 inches long
-aventitia, muscularis and mucosa (containing rugae)
-stratified squamous epithelium
-no glands in the mucosa-lubrication from cervical mucous glands

the vaginal orifice has a __ in many virgins; bleeds with first intercourse-may have to be cut

fatty area over pubic symphisis convered with pubic hair

homologous to scrotum

homologous to ventral penis

encolsed by labia minora; contains urethral opening and vaginal; grateer vestibular glands (homologous to bulbourethral in males)

erectile tissue and sensory nerve endings, homologous to penis

diamond shaped region

part of the integumentary system (modified sweat glands)

areola and nipple with sebaceous glands that produce __

there are __ lobes in each breast open at the nipple

__ within lobes contain glandular alveoli that produce milk

-early menses and late menopause
-no pregnancies or later in life
-X-rays (overexposure)
-smoking, alcohol, high-fat diets
-age
-previous history
-family history

__% of breast cancer patients have no known risk factors

produced in fetal period; diploid stem cells multiply by mitosis and enter growth phase

begin first meiotic division but are suspended in prophase I

__ oocytes are present at birth and remain this way until 10-14 years

the follicular phase __ in length

the luteal phase is __days

__ proliferate to form stratified epithelium around oocyte (now granuosa cells)

thecal cells produce adrogens that granulosa cells convert to estrogen

__ is formed as liquid accumulates in the follicular cavity

the antrum exapnds and isolates oocte when teh secondary follicle becomes a __ follicle

the primary follicle complete __ to form secondary oocyte and first polar body

stimulated by LH, dominant follicle ovulated

during the __ phase, the antrum fills with blood clot (corpus hemorrhagicum) that will be absorbed

during the __ phase, the granulosa and thecal cells enlarge; secretes progesteron and some estrogen

during the __ phase teh corpus luteum degenerates in 10 days if no fertillization

scar remaining on teh ovary after corpus luteum degeneration

small amounts of __ during chlldhood inhibits GnRH

at puberty, the __ is less sensitive to estrogen and secrets GnRHrhythmically

GnRH rises; FHS and LH relased

__ stimulate follicualr growth and maturation

negative feedback of estrogens on anterior pituitary inhibit __ so accululation occurs; __ from granulosa cells also feeds back negatively on FSH

estrogen reaches critical concentration and exerts __ on brain and anterior pituitary

__ surge stimulates primary oocyte to complete meiosis I and triggers ovulation

__ causes corpus luteum formation

__ and __ inhibit FSH and LH

a drop in __ causes the CL to degenerate (unless HCG maintains it)

a drop in __ allows FSH and LH to start the cycle over

uterine cycle characterized by the: shedding of endometrium

uterine cycle characterized by the: rebuilding of the endometrium

uterine cycle characterized by the: following ovulation; increased blood supply

promotes oogenesis and anabolic effects on reproducti e organs; growth spurt at 12-15 at puberty

-breast growth
-subcutaneous fat depostits
-widening and lightening of pelvis
-axillary and pubic hair
-metabilic effects
-cervical mucous changes
-inhibition of uterine motility during pregnancy (progesterone)
-preparation of breasts for lactation (progesterone)

bacteria in mucosae of reproductive and urinary tracts; painful urination and pus from penis; women have no symptoms or abdominal discomfort, discharge, bleeding

bacteria; if passed to fetus, usually stillborn or die shortly after birth; primary lesion which disappears, pink rash weeks later, fever and joint pain, anemia; enters latent period and only detectable by blood test; treatment with penicillen

most common in US; discharge, abdominal pain, pain intercourse, irregular meneses, sterility, bacterial

itching, painful intercourse, green discharge, infection

human papiloma virus; most common STI in US; can cause cervical cancer

herpes simplex virus, causes blisters

-made of estrogens and progesterons
-trick hypothalamus-pituitary into thining the body is pregnant, so folicles do not develop
-morning after pills are similar

IUD stand for:

contraceptive method of knowing when you ovulate

menopause starts at __ years

the end of menses

__ may contribute to osteoporosis during menopause

two kinds of abortion pills:

stops a fertilized egg from attaching to the lining of teh uterus, interferes with progesterone production

how does misoprostol work?

developing embryo/fetus

length of pregnancy; 280 days

first two weeks of pregnancy

weeks 3-8 of pregnancy

9 weeks to birth, the baby is called a __

fertilized egg

the ooctye is viable __ hours and sperm for __ hours

gain ability to fertilize the egg; membranes thin so enzymes can be release from teh arcosome

enzymes released near the oocyte; must penetrate the layers

__ of arcosomes are required to breakdown brrier

sperm arriving __ has a better chance of fertilizing the egg

entry of several sperm into egg

when one sperm enters; sodium channels open and sodium enters oocyte depolarizing membrane (fast block to polyspermy)

occurs once sperm has entred (slow block to polyspermy)

__ is completed by secondary ooctye (activated by calcium) and ejects 2nd polar body; chromosomes combine

fast mitotic divisions after fertilization

made after 72 hours, 6 cells or more

100 cells; in uterus now

fluid filled hollow ball

begins 6 days after fertilization; takes about 1 week to complete

the __ implants in uterus if endometruim is ready; if not mature, blastocytst detaches and moves down further

LH-like hormone that maintains CL, secreted by tophoblast

what does hCG do?

how do pregnancy tests work?

originates from embryoinic and endometrial tissues

chorionic villi become richly vascularized

the placenta is fully formed and functinal by the the end of the __ month

the __ produces high levels of estrogens and progestone to maintain pregnancy and prepare mammary glands for lactation

where do the estrogen and progestorne come form? if a womean needs progesterone supplements in pregnancy, why do they stop giving them in the second trimester?

when there are three primary germ layers present

the embryonic membranes: (4)

sac that fills with amniotic fluid tho cusihion, maintain temp, and aid in movment

forms part of gut, very early on produces blood cells

structural base for constucting umbilical cord and part of urinary bladder

the outermost layer of the allantois

germ layer formation

primary germ layers (3);

will become the nervous system and epidermis

will become the epithelial linings and glands

the __ becomes every thing

rod of mesodermal cells; first axial support

carries oxygenated blood form placenta to liver

bypasses liver, into inferior vena cava

in a fetsu, blood goes to the __ only to maintain its eclls, metabolic functions are carried out by the mother

bipasses lungs by going from right atrium to left atrium

blood entering right ventricle to pulmonary trunk but most goes through this shunt to aorta to bypass lungs

carries deoxygenated blood away from fetus

vacularization and engorgement of reproductive organs; purpling hue

when pregnant, breasts __ with blood, areolae __

fascial skin pigmmetation change in pregnant woment

placental hormone releases; widens and increases flexability of pelvic ligaments

when pregnant, a mother will gain ~ __ lbs

works with estrogens and progesterone to stiumlate breasts; glucose-sparing effect on mother

similar to TSH; inceases metabolic rte

a rise in __ and __ to casue positive calcium balance during pregnancy

a mother may have __ until aduested to E and P4 levels; heartburn, and constipation

when a women is pregnant, she will produce __ urine, and may be __

a pregnant mother will have congestion, __ vital capacity and reperatory rate but __ residual volum, causing dyspnea

a pregnant woman will have an __ total body water, and __ pulse rate and BP

a pregnant womens blood volume will increase by __% by 32 weeks

__ moms give birth to babies weighing 5-10% heavier

__ stimulates myometrial cells to increase oxytocin receptors and antagonizes progesterones quieting effects (braxton hicks contractions may result in false labor)

a hormone produced by the fetus that acts on placenta to cause prostaglandin release, stimulate uterine contractions

oxytocin from the posterior pituitary of the mother will eventually cuase a __ to increase contraction strength

Stage of labor: onset of labor until cervix is fully dialted (10 cm); longest stage, lasting 6-12 hours or more

stages of labor (3):

Stage of labor:
-full dilation to delivery; 50 minutes (first birth) to 2 hours; 20 min in subsequent births, crowing happens here

when the babies head is in the vulva

the doctor may have to do an __ during crowining

Stage of labor:
-15 min after birth
-after birth including placenta and attached fetal membranes are expelled

first few hours after birth

each of 5 signs (heart rate, respiration color, muscle tone and reflexes) given a rating of 0-2 for a total of 10 possible points

CO2 accumlates in the blood causing central acidosis that stiumlates repiratory centers

babies take ~ __ breaths per min

umbilical arteries form __

the umbilical vein forms the __

the ductus venousus forms __

where foramen ovale was; pressure increases when pulmonary circulation becomes functional and this closes pulmonary shunts

forms from the ductus arteriosus

all but the foramen ovale occlude withing __ min

the foramen ovale takes __ to occlude

6-8 hours then baby sleeps for 3 hours followed by second period of activyt and sleep

release of this is caused by rising placental estrogens, p4 and lactogen stimulate PRH

first yellowish fluid produced from breasts; more protein, vitamins, and inerals, rich in IgA in milk)

positive feedback due to suckling; oxytocin causes myoepithelial cells to force milk out

study of the mechanisms of heredity

X and Y; on pair

22 pairs

diploid chromosomal complement; shown in homologous chormosome pairs from longest to shortest

one form each partent

geners at same lcus on homologous chromosomes; may code same or diferent expression of the trait

expression of the enotype; what you look like

Ll, Mm, etc; your genetic makeup

allele that masks the expression of teh other

masked allele

two alleles controlling a trait are active

two alleles are different for same trait

du to independent assortment of chromosomes, corssovers, and random fertilization

__ are formed during meiosis I-maternal parnetal chromosomes are randomly distributed in daughter cells

members of allel pair are segregated to different __

allels on different pairs of homolgous chromosomes are distributed __

gametes have one allele for each __

possible formation of 2^n gamete types where n=number of homologous pairs (23); this comes to 8.5 million possibilites

females only have about __ reduction divisions, so fewer gamete types are produced

occurs during meiosis I, genes on a chromosome are linked or passed on as a unit in mitosis

exchange of gene segments occurs with homologous chromosomes; result is a mixture of partental and material information

two of the four chromatids of the tetrad take par in __

like a coin toss, birht of one shild has no effect on the next

lethal dominant genes always expressed, so seldom passed on

albinism, cystic fibrosis, tay-sachs disease

does not express trait, but is heterozygous for it

heterozygous for sickling trait (Ss); normal and sickling Hb produced

ss or homozygous recessive; low oxygen in blood casues RBC's to jam and fragment in capillaires du to shape; must have transfusion

blood type inheritence is __

traits determined by genes on the sex chromosomes

genes found only on the X cromosome, males more likely to express these

genes that have no couterpart on X chromosome and are passed from fathers to sons only, hairy ears etc.

when several gene pairs influence same trait; continuous or qualitiative phenotypic variation on a scale (skin color, intelligence, height etc.

__ is controlled by three seperatly inherited genes with 2 allelic forms (A, a, B, b, C, c)

autism, cancer, diabetes, and cleft lip are all __ inheritance

drugs, pathogens, et

same allel can have different effect from different parent because gene modification occurs during gametogeneisis; confers functional differences in embryo

-some genes are on the mitochondria
-eggs donates alomst alll cytoplam to fertilized egg and therefore the mitochondiral genes

disorders such as parkinsons are suspected to be inherited through __ inheratince

is important if one parent has a recessive genetic disorder because if partener is heterozygous, cna be inherited by children

traces genetic traits through generations

when amniotic fluid is checked for chemicals that are markers for certain diseases

aminocentesis usually picks up __ fetal cells in the fluid

__ are checked in amniocentesis

sampling from placenta, faster than aminocentesis because cells divide radily and kayotyping can be done