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233 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the functions of the Lymphatic System?
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1. Drain excess interstital(tissue) fluid, filters it, and returns it to the circulatory system.
2. Transport dietary lipids(fats) from intestines to blood. 3.Carries out immune responses. |
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Lymph
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what interstitial fluid is called once it enters the lymphatic system.
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Edema
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swelling (happens when to much interstital fluid accumilates in the tissue)
|
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What are some treatments for edema?
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1. Diuretics
2. Fluid Restriction 3. Bedrest |
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What are some causes of edema
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1. Blackage in the lymphatic system
2. Removal of lymph nodes 3. Interstital fluid forms faster than it can drainaway 4. CHF (conjestive heart failure) |
|
Lymphatic Capillaries
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-Smallest lymph vessels
-One end lies in the tissue to collect fluid -Other end is connected to lymphatic vessel |
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Lymphatic Vessels
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-Have thinner walls & more valves than veins
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Lymph Nodes
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- Bean- shaped organs, found in groups
|
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Where are large groups of lymph nodes located?
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1. Mammary glands
2. Axillae (armpit) 3. Inguinal (groin) |
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What is the function of a lymph node?
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-filter lymph, and carry out immune responses
|
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What contains lymphocytes (T-cells, B-cells) & macrophages which are involved in immune responses?
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Lymph Nodes
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Lymph Truncks
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-vessels at exits of lymph nodes
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Ducts
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- collect & return lymph to circulatory system at subclavian veins
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Thoracic Duct
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- main collecting duct; collects lymph from bottom half & upper left side of the body
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Lymphatic Duct
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- collects lymph from upper right side of the body only
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Lymph Flow
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Fluid collected by lymphatic capillaries-> lymphatic vessels->lymph nodes-> lymph trunks-> Thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct-> subclavian veins
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What are some lymphatic organs?
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- red bone marrow, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes
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Red Bone Marrow
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- produces lymphocytes (B & T cells); B cells mature here
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Thymus
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- T cells (fight infection) mature here
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What is large in infants and starts to atrophy after puberty?
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Thymus
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Where is the spleen located?
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- near the stomach on the left side
|
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What is the spleen compsed of?
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- white pulp (lymphatic tissue)
-red pulp (filled with blood) |
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What are the functions of the spleen?
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- white pulp -immune responses(destroys invaders)
- red pulp -destroys old blood cells; stores platelets |
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Splenectomy
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- surgical removal of the spleen
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Lymphatic Nodules
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- also carry out immune responses
-scattered throughout the mucous membrane (MALT) |
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MALT
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-mucous associated lymphatic tissue
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How many tonsils do we have?
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- One pharyngeal tonsil (or adenoid)
- Two palatine tonsils - Two lingual tonsils |
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Tonsillectomy
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- surgical removal of the tonsils
|
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Metastasize
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- to spread
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lymphoma
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- cancer of the lymph nodes
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Pulmonology
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- study of the lungs
|
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What are the functions of the respiratory system?
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- Performs gas exchange (take in O2, eliminates CO2)
-Helps regulate blood pH -Smell -Speech |
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Upper respiratory system
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-nose & pharynx (throat)
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Lower respiratory system
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- larynx, trachea, bronchi, & lungs
|
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External nose
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- part you see; made of cartilage & bone, lined with mucus membrane & hairs
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External nares
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- (nostrils)- openings where air enters & exits
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Nasal cavity
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- space inside nose
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What is the nasal cavity composed of?
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- palate, nasal septum, nasal conchae, internal nares
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Palate
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- floor of nasal cavity & roof of mouth
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Nasal septum
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-separates nose into right & left nostrils
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Nasal conchae
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- scroll- shaped bones that project into cavity; increase surface area inside nose
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Internal nares
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- openings between nasal cavity & pharynx
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What are the functions of the nose?
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- warming, moistening, and filtering incoming air
- smell -modifies speech vibrations |
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Pharynx
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throat
|
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What are the functions of the pharynx?
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- passageway for air and food
- modifies speech vibrations - contains tonsils |
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What are the 3 regions of the pharynx?
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- nasopharynx
- oropharynx - laryngopharynx |
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Nasopharynx
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- (superior)- lies behind the nasal cavity
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Oropharynx
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-(middle)-lies behind the oral cavity, contains other pairs of tonsils
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Laryngopharynx
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-(inferior)- common area before esophagus & larynx
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Larynx
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- voice box
|
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Thyroid cartilage
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- anterior wall of larynx, triangular- shaped, larger in men
|
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Cricoid cartilage
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- ring of cartilage below throid cartilage
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Epiglottis
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- cartilage flap that closes on top of larynx when you swallow (preventing food & liquid from getting into respiratory tract)
|
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Where is the glottis located?
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- inside the larynx
|
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Glottis
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- contains vocal cords/folds with a hole between for air to enter respiratory tract
|
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Do males or females have loger thicker vocal cords that vibrate slowly?
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-males-(results in a deeper voice)
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True vocal cords
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- muscles tighten the cords, then air passes over the cords causing them to vibrate, vibrations produce sound
|
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Laryngitis
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-inflammation of the larynx, vocal cords swell & can't vibrate
|
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Trachea
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- windpipe
- has C-shaped rings made of cartilage to reinforce trachea walls so they don't collapse -lined with mucous membrane & cilla |
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What is the function of the trachea?
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- tubular passageway for air; anterior to esophagus
|
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What are 2 emergency airways?
|
- tracheotomy
- intubation |
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Tracheotomy
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- opening made below cricoid cartilage
|
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Intubation
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- tube inserted into trachea, connected to ventilator
|
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The Bronchial Tree
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- primary bronchi-> secondary bronchi->tertiary bronchi-> bronchioles->terminal bronchioles
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Primary bronchi
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- first division, enters the lungs
|
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Secondary bronchi
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- subdivision, one branch enters each lobe of lung
|
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Tertiary bronchi
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- smaller branches
|
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Bronchiloes
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- even smaller branches
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Terminal bronchioles
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- end bronchiole, connected to alveoli(which performs gas exchange)
|
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Layers of the airway
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- mucosa->submucosa-> hyaline cartilage-> adventitia
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Mucosa
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- mucous membrane lined with with ciliated epithelium
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Submucosa
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- layer of elastic fibers & smooth muscle
|
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Hyaline cartilage
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- to keep airway open
|
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Adventitia
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- connective tissue
|
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As airway brances the amount of smooth muscle_______ & amount of catilage _______.
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- increases, decreases
|
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Asthma
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- chronic airwa yinflammation
- An allergic reaction which causes bronchi & bronchioles to spasm & constrict |
|
What are some symptoms of asthma?
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- difficulty breathing
- wheezing - couphing - chest tightness |
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Lungs
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- pair of organs in the thoracic cavity
|
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Pleual membrane
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-2 layers that surround & protect each lung
|
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Parietal pleura
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- lines wall of thoracic cavity
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Visceral pleura
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- covers each lung
|
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Pleural cavity
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- space between membranes which contains pleural fluid (reduces friction between membranes)
|
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Pleuritis
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- inflammation of the pleual membrane
|
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Pneumothorax
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- air gets into pleural cavity, may cause lung collapse
|
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How many lobes does each lung have?
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- right lung has 3 lobes
- left lung as 2 lobes |
|
Alveoli
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- (air sacs)- surrounded by blood capillaries; main site of gas exchange in lungs
|
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Surfactant
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- fluid that prevents alveoli from collapsing
|
|
Macrophages
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- also present to remove debris from air we breathe in
|
|
How does gas exchange happen?
|
- by diffusion across alveolar & capillary membranes
|
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Pulmonary ventilation
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- (breathing)- moving air into & out of the lungs
|
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Inspiration/Inhilation
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- air flows into lungs
|
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Expiration/Exhalation
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- air flows out of lungs
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External respiration
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- gas exchange between alveoli (lungs) & blood capillaries
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Internal respiration
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- gas exchange between the blood capillaries & the cells
|
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Mechanics of breathing
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- air will always move from an area of high pressure to an area of lower pressure
|
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Diaphram
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- dome- shaped skeletal muscle at floof of thoracic cavity; used in breathing
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Eupnea
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- normal breathing
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Apnea
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- temporary cessation of breathing
|
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Dyspnea
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- difficult breathing
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Typical respiration rate
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- 12-20 breaths per minute
|
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Respirometer/Spirometer
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- intrument used to measure breathing volumes (amout of air)
|
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What variables affect lung capacity?
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- height, gender, age, smoking, lung disease
|
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Tidal volume (500 mL)
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- amount of air in one normal breathe
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Inspiratory reserve volume (3100 mL)
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- amount of extra air that can be forcibly inhaled ( a deep breathe)
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Expiratory reserve volume (1200 mL)
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- amount of extra air that can be forcibly exhaled( after a normal exhalation)
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Residual volume (1200mL)
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- amount of air that always remains in lungs
|
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Viral capacity (4800mL)
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- TV+ IRV+ ERV
|
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How does gas exchange happen?
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- diffusion
|
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Almost all oxygen is carried by ______ (inside RBCs)
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- hemoglobin
|
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Carbon monoxide poisoning
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- hemoglobin prefers Co, which drastically reduces O2 levels in the blood, leading to hypoxia (O2 deficiency)
|
|
How is carbon dioxide transpoted in the blood?
|
- dissolved in blood plasme
- carried by hemoglobin - majority is converted to bicarbonate ions |
|
What controls respiration?
|
- areas in the medulla oblongata & pons
- we have some voluntary control |
|
COPD
(Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease) |
- respiratory disorder with chronic obstruction of airflow
|
|
What causes COPD?
|
- obstruction of airflow
- 2 as common in men |
|
What are 2 types of COPD?
|
- Chronic bronchitis
- Emphysema |
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Chronic bronchitis
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- chronic inflammation of the bronchi, excessive mucus is produced
|
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Emphysema
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- alveoli get destroyed, less oxygen can be exchanged
|
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Lung cancer
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- leading cause of cancer death in US
- 85% of lung cancer is related to smoking - seconhand smoke causes lung cancer in nonsmokers |
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Pneumonia
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- infection of the alveoli, can be viral/ bacterial
|
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Tuberculosis (TB)
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- highly contagious bacterial disease
|
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Cystic fibrosis
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- inherited disease that causes excess mucus production in the lungs (and other secretory epithelial tissues) & eventually causes lung disease
|
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SIDS (sudden infant death syndrome)
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- death of infant to 12 months of age due to hypoxia
|
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Gastroenterology
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- study of the stomach & intestines
|
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Gastrointesinal (GI) tract
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- continuous tube from mouth to anus
|
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Peristalsis
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- wavelike muscular contractions that move food along th GI tract
|
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Accessory structures
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- assist with digestion or produce chemicals needed for chemical digestion
|
|
What are the accessory structures in the digestive system?
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- teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, & pancreas
|
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Ingestion
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- eating/ taking in food
|
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Digestion
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- food breakdown
|
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Mechanical digestion
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- chewing, cutting, grinding & churning food to break it into small pieces
|
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Chemical digestion
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- enzymes break food down into smaller molecules
|
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Absorbtion
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- movement of food from GI tract into blood / lymph
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Defecation
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- elimination of wastes & undigested material as feces
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Steps of digestion
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1. Ingestion
2. Digestion 3. Absorbtion 4. Defecation |
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What are the layers of the GI tract?
|
- Mucosa(mucus membrane )
-Submucosa -Muscularis(2 to 3 layers of smooth musclewhich perform peristalsis) -Serosa (AKA visceral peritoneum) |
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Peritoneum
|
- a serous membrane
|
|
What are the two layers of the peritoneum?
|
- parietal peritoneum
- visceral peritoneum |
|
Parietal peritoneum
|
- lines wall of the abdominopelvic cavity
|
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Visceral peritoneum
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- covers organs in the abdominopelvic cavity
|
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Peritoneal cavity
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- space between the two peritoneum layers, filled with peritoneal fluid
|
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Peritonitis
|
- an acute inflammation of the peritoneum, can be life-threatening
|
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What are the boundaries of the mouth (oral cavity)?
|
- cheeks, hard & soft palates, tongue, oropharynx
|
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Roof of mouth
|
- hard palate(made of bone) & soft palate (made of muscle)
|
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What is the function of the salivary glands?
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- secrete saliva
|
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What is the function of saliva?
|
- moistens food,
-starts starch digestion -washes mouth & teeth |
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What are the 3 pairs of salivary glands?
|
- parotid glands(in cheek, front of ear)
- submandibular blands(below mandible) -lingual glands(below tongue) |
|
What is the functions of the tongue?
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- moves food around
- swallowing - speech - taste |
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Surface of the tongue contains ______ papillae wwhich have ______ .
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-papillae, taste buds
|
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What is the function of teeth?
|
-bite, chew, & grind food
|
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Where are the teeth located?
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- sockets of mandible & maxillae, surrounded by gums (gingivae)
|
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What are the componets of the teeth?
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-crown (visible portion of the tooth)
-roots(portion embedded in socket) |
|
Tooth composition
|
-enamel(hard outer covering of crown)
-dentin(hard substance tooth is made of) -Pulp & root canals(contain nerves & blood vessels |
|
Dentition (sets of teeth)
|
- Primary or baby teeth
- Permanent teeth a. incisors for biting b. canines for tearing c. premolars for grinding d. molars for grinding |
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Where does digestion begin?
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- mastication (chewing)
|
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Composition of saliva
|
- mostly water
- mucus - salivary amylase |
|
Salivary amylase
|
- initiates the breakdown of starch
|
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Pharynx
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- throat
|
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What is the function of the pharynx?
|
- swallowing (deglutition)
|
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Bolus
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- lump of chewed food that is swallowed
|
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Esophagus
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- collapsible, muscular tube
|
|
What is the function of the esophagus?
|
- moves food from the pharynx to stomach using peristalsis
|
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Upper esophageal sphincter
|
- esophagus entrance
|
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Lower esophageal sphincter
|
- (cardiac sphincter) - located between esophagus & stomach; relaxes to let food enter stomach
|
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GERD ( Gastroesophageal Reflux disease)
|
- lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter doesn't close properly; acidic contents of the stomach back up into esophagus; causes burning sensation of heartburn
|
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Stomach
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- J- shaped organ on the left side
|
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Rugae
|
- large folds inside stomach (when it's empty); stretch & disappear when stomach is full
|
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Pyloric sphincter
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- connects stomach to duodenum
|
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What are the functions of the stomach?
|
- mashes and mixes food
- temporarily stores food - secreates gastric juice - starts protein & fat digestion |
|
Digestion in the stomach
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- mechanical digestion
|
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What is the composition of gastric juice?
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- mucus- protects stomach lining
|
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Hydrochloric acid (HCI)
|
- kills bacteria
- denatures (unfolds) proteins - helps convert pepsinogen (inactive form) into pepsin (active form) |
|
Pepsin
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- enzyme which breaks down proteins
|
|
What is needed for vitamin B12 absorption?
|
- Intrinsic factor
|
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Chyme
|
-liquid mixture of partially digested food & gastric juice
- slowly released from stomach into duodenum |
|
Vomiting (emesis)
|
- forceful expulsion of stomach contents through the mouth
|
|
Pancreas
|
- organ located behind the stomach
|
|
Pancreatic islets
(islet of Langerhans) |
- secrete insulin & glucagon (endocrine)
|
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Acini
|
- secrete pancreatic juice
|
|
What stimulates the production of pancreatic juice?
|
- presence of chyme in duodenum which is then added to the duodenum
|
|
What is pancreatic juice composed of?
|
- Water
- Sodium bicarbonate (neutralizes stomach acid) -Many digestive enzymes |
|
Pancreatic enzymes
|
- pancreatic amylase (digest starch)
-pancreatic lipase (digest lipids) -several enzymes which digest proteins -Nucleases(digest nucleic acids) |
|
Liver
|
- large, dark organ on right side (under ribs)
|
|
How many lobes does the liver have?
|
-2 lobes made up of many lobules
|
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What does a lobule consist of?
|
-many hepatocytes arranged aroun a central vein. Kupffer's cells are also present
|
|
Kupffer's cells
|
-phagocytosis
|
|
Hepatocytes
|
-perform most liver functions, including bile secreation
|
|
What are the functions of the liver?
|
-metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, & proteins
-breaks down drugs, alcohol, & hormones -Produces bile -storage of glycogen and some vitamins & minerals -phagocytosis of old blood cells & bacteria |
|
What is the function of bile?
|
-bile salts (in bile) emulsify (break apart) lipid globules
- once produced it leaves liver via the hepatic ducts |
|
Gallbladder
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-small sac located inderneath liver
|
|
What is the function of the gallbladder?
|
-stores bile
|
|
How does bile enter & leave the gallbladder?
|
-via the cystic ducts
|
|
Gallstones
|
-can block hepatic, cystic, or common bile ducts which blocks flow of bile
|
|
What are some treatments for gallstones?
|
-drugs, lithotripsy(shock-wave therapy), & surgery
|
|
Small Intestine
|
- long, coiled, partially- contracted hollow tube
|
|
What are the functions of the small intestine?
|
-chemical digestion & absorbtion of food
- chyme is moved through the intestines by peristalsis |
|
What are the three regions of the small intestines?
|
-duodenum, jejunum. & ileum
|
|
Ileocecal sphincter
|
-connects ileum to large intestine
|
|
What are some structures that greatly increase the surface area inside the small intestine for nutrient absorbtion?
|
-circular folds
-villi( finger-like projections) -microvilli(smaller projections on a villus) |
|
Chemical digestion in the small intestine
|
-Carbohydrates are brocken down into disaccharides and then into monosaccharides
-Proteins are brocken down into peptides and then into amino acids -Triglycerides(fats) are brocken down into glycerol & fatty acids |
|
Small intestin absorbtion
|
-absorbs a lot of water
-Fats & fat-soluble vitamins are absorbed by lacteals -All other nutrients are absorbed by blood capillaries |
|
Large intestine (colon)
|
-puckered hollow tube that is larger in diameter than small intestine; millions of bacteria live inside
|
|
What are the functions of the large intestine?
|
-produce some vitamins
-finish absorbtion of water &vitamins -form & eliminate feces |
|
Cecum
|
- blind pouch of large intestin
|
|
Appendix
|
- attached to cecum
|
|
Appendicitis
|
- inflammation of the appendix
- can cause life-threatening peritonitis if it bursts |
|
Colon
|
- asending, transverse, desendin & sigmoid regions
|
|
Rectum
|
- stimulates defecation reflex
|
|
Hemorroids
|
- varicose veins of the rectum
|
|
Anus
|
- opening through which feces are eliminated
|
|
Internal anal sphincter
|
- involuntary control
|
|
External anal sphincter
|
- voluntary control
|
|
Diarrhea
|
- increased motility of colon & decreased water absorbtion by colon
Result:frequent watery feces Causes:illness lactose intolerance, stress, food poisoning |
|
Constipation
|
- decreased mtility of colon & increased water absorbtion by colon
Result:infrequent, dry , hard, feces that are hard to pass Causes:insufficient fiber, of fluids in diet, strees, lack of exercise |
|
Jaundice
|
-yellowish color to the skin caused by a buildup of bilirubin, can indicate liver disease
|
|
Hepatitis
|
- inflammation of the liver caused by viruses, drugs, or alcohol
|
|
Hepatitis A
|
- spread by fecal contamination, mild
|
|
Hepatitis B
|
- spread by sexual contact or contaminated blood, can cause cirrhosis or liver cancer; vaccine to prevent it
|
|
Hepatitis C
|
- similar to hep b ( but no vaccine)
|
|
Peptic ulcers
|
- craterlike lesions (sores) that develop in GI tract; can cause bleeding
|
|
What are some causes of peptic ulcers?
|
- bacteria
- NSAIDs( esp asprin) -Overproduction of HCI |
|
Cirrhosis
|
- scarring of the liver
- caused by: hepatitis, drugs, alcoholism |
|
Irritable bowl syndrome (IBS)
|
- pain and alternating bouts of diarreha & constipationw due to stress
|
|
Inflammatory bowl disease (Crohn's disease is one)
|
- inflammation of any part of the GI tract
|
|
Colorectal cancer
|
- begins as polyps ( small growths) on inside of colon
- genetics play a role - Prevention: high-fiber, low-fat diet |
|
What are some signs of colorectal cancer?
|
- constipation, diarrha, blood in stool, rectal bleeding & abdominal pain or cramping
|
|
Why do we need food?
|
- for energy
- serve as building blocks -store energy for future use |
|
Metabolism
|
- all chemical reactions that occur in the body
|
|
Catabolism
|
- breakdown reactions (release energy)
|
|
Anabolism
|
- synthesis reaction (stores energy, builds/repairs things)
|
|
Nutrients
|
- substances the body uses for energy, growth, maintenance, & repair of tissues
|
|
What are some Nutrients in the body?
|
-Carbohydrates, lipids, water, proteins, vitamins(organic nutriens required in small amounts) & minerals(inorganic elements)
|
|
Fat-soluble vitamins
|
- can be stored (A, D, E, K)
|
|
Water-soluble vitamins
|
- can't be stored (B, C)
|
