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417 Cards in this Set
- Front
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isoosmotic
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when two solutions have the same osmolarity
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hyperosmotic
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when one solution has a greater osmolarity than another
|
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hypoosmotic
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when one solution has a more dilute solution than another
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osmoconformers
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isoosmotic with surroundings
{marine animals only} live in typically osmotically stable environments no tendency to gain or lose water |
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osmoregulators
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must control its internal osmolarity
{all freshwater + terrestrial animals} |
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osmoregulators that live in a hyperosmotic environment must
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take in water
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osmoregulators that live in a hypoosmotic environment must
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get rid of excess water
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the Salt Lake is one of the most hyper or hypoosmotic environments?
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hyperosmotic
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stenohaline
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can tolerate only narrow changes in external osmolarity
ex. goldfish--change water constantly, its high maintenance! |
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euryhaline
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organism that can tolerate large fluctuations in external osmolarity
ex. talapia-- put it in anything and it can grow and reproduce --its low maintenance! |
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ALL vertebrates are
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OSMOREGULATORS
|
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MOST invertebrates are
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OSMOCONFORMERS
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marine environments are dehydrating! this means you tend to lose..
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water from body by osmosis
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unlike saltwater fish, sharks maintain HIGH..
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internal solute concentrations
hyperosmotic internally |
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water follows..
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the higher solute concentration
HYPER osmotic |
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fresh water fish urinate ______ and drink ______
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a LOT
little |
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seawater fish urinate ________ and drink _______
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a little
a LOT |
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can osmoregulate like marine fish in salt water environments and like freshwater fish in those environments
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euryhaline fish
ex. talapia, salmon |
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adaptations by marine animals
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osmoconformers
osmoregulators |
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adaptations by freshwater fish
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gain water by osmosis, lose salts-- drink little, urinate a lot, take up salts from outside
|
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adaptations by terrestial animals
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must prevent water loss and take in water
|
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the key to reabsorption and secretion
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the transporting epithelium
|
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what kind of cells line the tubule?
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epithelial cells
|
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to move solutes across the epithelim requires...
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specialized proteins (transporters, ion channels)
|
|
excretory systems in different organisms all share
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tubular-like structures
large surface area ability to transport water, solutes, nitrogenous wastes |
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kind of "immature kidneys"
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protonephridia
|
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What is metanephridia?
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kidneys in earthworms
(osmoregulation + excretion) |
|
insects and terrestrial arthropods use what for osmoregulation and excretion?w
|
go back to notes and catch this answer!
|
|
hollow tubules that make up the kidneys
{functional unit of the kidney} |
nephrons
|
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renal arteries branch off from the...
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aorta
|
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resides entirely in the cortex
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cortical nephron
|
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dives deep into the renal medulla; enables mammals to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to body fluids
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juxtamedullary nephron
|
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4/5 of your nephrons are...
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cortical nephrons
|
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glomerulus + Bowman's capsule
|
??? study this more!
|
|
glomerulus + Bowman's capsule
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??? study this more!
|
|
understand the journey of the filtrate
|
!!
|
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understand the journey of the filtrate
|
!!
|
|
kidneys produce how much filtrate?
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180 Liters of filtrate
|
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kidneys produce how much filtrate?
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180 Liters of filtrate
|
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about how much urine is excreted every day
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1.5 Liters of urine
|
|
about how much urine is excreted every day
|
1.5 Liters of urine
|
|
about how many liters of blood are filtered every day through the kidneys?
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1100-2000 Liters!
|
|
about how many liters of blood are filtered every day through the kidneys?
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1100-2000 Liters!
|
|
Why bother filtering 180 L of fluid per day to reabsorb more than 99%?
|
*many foreign substances are filtered into the nephron but not reabsorbed- they can get out quickly!!
*maintain homeostasis! |
|
Why bother filtering 180 L of fluid per day to reabsorb more than 99%?
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*many foreign substances are filtered into the nephron but not reabsorbed- they can get out quickly!!
*maintain homeostasis! |
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What does "filtrate" include?
|
water, salts, H+, Urea, Glucose, amino acids, some drugs, HCO3-
|
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What does "filtrate" include?
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water, salts, H+, Urea, Glucose, amino acids, some drugs, HCO3-
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What products must be acitvely transported through the kidneys?
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Salt, H+, Nutrients, K+,HCO3-
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What products must be acitvely transported through the kidneys?
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Salt, H+, Nutrients, K+,HCO3-
|
|
What is absorbed into the proximal tubule?
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salts, especially NaCl, water, and and nutrients
|
|
What is absorbed into the proximal tubule?
|
salts, especially NaCl, water, and and nutrients
|
|
What is absorbed into the descending tubule?
|
Go back and look at the slide!
|
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What is absorbed into the descending tubule?
|
Go back and look at the slide!
|
|
Distal Tubule
|
??
|
|
Collecting Duct
|
??
|
|
removal of excess water fROM the body in urine
|
diuresis
|
|
drugs that cause or facilitate diuresis
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diuretics
|
|
What regulates water permeability?
|
vasopressin
|
|
vasopressin is released from..
|
posterior pituitary
|
|
vasopresson is also called..
|
ADH antidiuretic hormone
|
|
ADH or vasopressin does what?
|
inhibits diuresis
|
|
what can inhibit vasopressin?
|
alcohol
thus you increase urination; dehydration |
|
RAAS
|
Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System
|
|
which cells release renin?
|
juxtaglomerular cells
|
|
constricts in response to angiotensin 2
|
afferent arteriole
|
|
What senses fluid flow dynamics?
|
macula densa
|
|
What secrets aldosterone?
|
adrenal gland
|
|
ANF; released from?
|
atrial natriuretic factor
from heart |
|
3/4 of nephrons are...
|
cortical nephrons
|
|
understand the flow of filtrate through the nephron
|
!!
|
|
ganglia
|
collection of cell bodies
|
|
role of the nervous system
|
integrate information, decide on appropriate response
|
|
detects important internal and external stimuli
|
sensory neurons
|
|
integrates information in its current context and with recent history and produces the most appropriate output.
|
central nervous system
|
|
carry the output of the CNS to the effector cells that produce the appropriate response
|
motor neurons
|
|
interneurons are part of what?
|
the central nervous system
|
|
the vast majority of cells in the nervous system are..
|
interneurons
|
|
the functional unit of the nervous system
|
neurons
|
|
signals sent to a neuron may be...
|
chemical
electrical or sensory |
|
chemical, electrical, and sensory input must be...
|
transduced at the neuron
(transduction) |
|
cell - to - cell signals
|
synapse
|
|
draw a neuron!
|
draw it!
|
|
the number and complexity of dendrites is correlated with..
|
the amount of input the neuron receives
|
|
supporting cells in the nervous system that fulfill a variety of important roles
|
Glia cells!
|
|
functions of glia cells
|
structural support
maintenance of ionic compositions remove "extra" chemicals (neurotransmitters) insulate neurons electrically formation of blood-brain barrier provide a path for developing neurons secretion of compounds for neuronal maintenance participate in information flow in the nervous system |
|
ex. of glia cells
|
ependymal cells,
schwann cells; oligodendrocytes astrocytes radial glia |
|
all neurons (cells) have a potential difference across their plasma membrane, what is this called?
|
membrane potential
|
|
resting potential
|
when neurons are not actively signaling
|
|
changes in membrane potential (Vm) reflects changes in..
|
cell activity
|
|
positive changes in membrane potential means..
|
depolarization
generally correlated with INCREASED activity! (activation) |
|
negative changes in membrane potential means..
|
.. look at slide!
|
|
a change in permeability to various ions =
|
changes in membrane potential {Vm}!!!
|
|
action potentials
|
all or none, brief, regenerative
amplitude tells you nothing about the potential! its all in the number of times |
|
what has an influence on the speed of action potential conduction?
|
*size (diameter) - LARGE conducts signal much faster!
*insulation (myelin sheath) |
|
a change in permeability to various ions =
|
changes in membrane potential {Vm}!!!
|
|
nodes of ranvier
|
where ion channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials are clustered
|
|
multiple sclerosis is a ..
|
demylenating disease
|
|
action potentials
|
all or none, brief, regenerative
amplitude tells you nothing about the potential! its all in the number of times |
|
all cells in the atrial have..
|
electrical synapses (gap junctions) for coordinated contractions
--its immediate |
|
what has an influence on the speed of action potential conduction?
|
*size (diameter) - LARGE conducts signal much faster!
*insulation (myelin sheath) |
|
where ion channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials are clustered
|
nodes of ranvier
|
|
multiple sclerosis is a ..
|
demylenating disease
|
|
all cells in the atrial have..
|
electrical synapses (gap junctions) for coordinated contractions
--its immediate |
|
a change in permeability to various ions =
|
changes in membrane potential {Vm}!!!
|
|
action potentials
|
all or none, brief, regenerative
amplitude tells you nothing about the potential! its all in the number of times |
|
what has an influence on the speed of action potential conduction?
|
*size (diameter) - LARGE conducts signal much faster!
*insulation (myelin sheath) |
|
where ion channels that contribute to the generation of action potentials are clustered in the neuron
|
nodes of ranvier
|
|
multiple sclerosis is what kind of disease?
|
demylenating disease
|
|
all cells in the atrial have..
|
electrical synapses (gap junctions) for coordinated contractions
--its immediate |
|
detect important internal and external stimuli
|
sensory neurons
|
|
vast majority of neurons in the central nervous system are?
|
interneurons
|
|
carries the output of the CNS to the effector cells the create the appropriate response
|
motor neurons
|
|
mechanoreceptors are...
|
sensory neurons
|
|
what neurons do?
|
they receive and transmit information
|
|
language from input to neuron
|
a transduction
|
|
the number and complexity of dendrites correlates with..
|
the amount of input the neuron receives
|
|
which ion is most permeable to the cell?
|
K+ ions
|
|
changes in membrane potential mean
|
changes in cell activity!!
|
|
the concentration ratio of K+ ions in the cell: out of the cell
|
30:1
|
|
the nernst equation basically states that: the equilibrium for any ion is based on...
|
CHARGE + CONCENTRATION GRADIENT!
|
|
Why is resting membrane more permeable to K+ than Na+?
|
Because Vm (resting membrane potential) is closer to Ek, than Ena
|
|
permeability of cell membrane to various ions can change, which also means...
|
Membrane potential can change!!
|
|
two factors that affect movement of ions
|
concentration gradient
charge effect |
|
what could cause a change in the tension of the membrane, causing it to open or close?
|
ex. osmolarity
|
|
how do ion channels open?
|
changes in the membrane or channels activated by chemicals or
nongated channels {leak channels} |
|
channels that are opened by chemicals are called
|
ligand-gated ion channels
|
|
two ion channels that can be opened or closed due to changes in the membrane
|
voltage gated ion channels
ligand-gated ion channels |
|
magnitude of the change in membrane potential varies with stimulus strength
|
graded potentials
|
|
threshold
|
the minimum depolarization necessary to fire an action potential
|
|
stronger stimuli in an action potential generates..
|
higher frequency of action potentials
|
|
"jumping" conduction
|
saltatory conduction
|
|
EPSP
|
Excitatory PostSynaptic Potential
|
|
IPSP
|
Inhibitory PostSynaptic Potential
|
|
postsynaptic neurons sum up all their inputs in both time (temporal summation) and in space (spatial summation)
|
synaptic integration!
|
|
Glutamate binds to two types of glutamate receptors..
|
AMPA and NMDA
|
|
conscious senses
|
special senses
somatic senses |
|
subconscious senses
|
somatic stimuli
visceral stimuli |
|
special senses
|
vision, hearing, taste, smell, equilibrium
|
|
somatic senses
|
touch-pressure
temperature pain proprioception |
|
somatic stimuli
|
muscle length-tension
|
|
visceral stimuli
|
blood pressure
pH and O2 levels in blood pH of cerbrospinal fluid osmolarity of body fluids temperature blood glucose distension of GI tract |
|
respond to light or electromagnetic fields
|
electromagnetic receptors
|
|
responds to noxious stimuli
|
nociceptors
|
|
What are two ions that will hyperpolarize the cell when ?released?
|
Cl- and K+
|
|
What are two ions that will depolarize the cell when released?
|
Na+ and Ca+
|
|
Ways intensity of stimulation is coded for..
|
frequency of action potentials generation
number of receptors activated duration of stimulus |
|
not all sensory receptors fire action potentials. name an example
|
photoreceptors
|
|
2 receptor response types
|
tonic receptors
phasic receptors |
|
olfactory receptors becoming accustomed to a smell
|
phasic receptor
|
|
characteristics of a phasic receptor
|
response adapts rapidly after initial burst of activity
transmit signal to CNS when stimulus intensity changes allows one to filter out background noise (signals) ex. olfactory receptors, photoreceptors |
|
receptor that deals with hearing and balance
|
mechanoreception
|
|
Metabotropic receptor
|
neurotransmitter will bind to this receptor which will intern send an intracellular 2nd messenger to the bind with the ion channel that will open and allow ions to flow in and out
|
|
Name an example of a metabotropic receptor
|
G Protein Coupled Receptors (GPCRs)
|
|
intracellular second messengers can be...
|
receptors
transporters ion channels |
|
LTP
|
long term potentiation
|
|
changes in how the synapse respondes
|
LTP
long term potentiation (how we have learning and memory) |
|
What part of the brain is critical for short term and long term memory?
|
hippocampus!
|
|
plays central role in formation and retrieval of long term memory
|
hippocampus
|
|
how do we generate a larger postsynaptic response?
|
1. presynaptic terminal releases glutamate
2. glutamate binds to two types of glutamate receptors (AMPA & NMDA) 3. Calcium influx through NMDA receptors activates a number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell |
|
Two Glutamate receptors
|
AMPA, NMDA
|
|
T/F
AMPA and NMDA are ligand gated channels |
True
|
|
AMPA receptor allows which ions to go through the cell?
|
Na, K
(this will depolarize the cell!!!) |
|
NMDA receptors allow which ions to go through the cell?
|
Na, K, and Ca
|
|
What allows NMDA receptors to activate (open)?
|
depolarization (through AMPA opening) and a glutamate binding to it
|
|
enhances presynaptic release of glutamate
|
retrograde release of nitric oxide (gaseous substance that just diffuses across the membrane)
|
|
Calcium influx through NMDA receptors activates a number of pathways in the postsynaptic cell.
List the 3 Dr. Gilbertson talked about |
1. increases responsiveness of AMPA receptors (phosphorylation)
2. increase # of AMPA receptors available 3. leads to retrograde release of nitric oxide (which enhances presynaptic release of glutamate) AKA---- AMPA receptors work better, there are more of them, and more glutamate will be released! thus = a BIGGER EPSP |
|
proprioception
|
the sensing of where our appendages are in 3 dimensional space
(being able to drive a car without looking at your feet) |
|
job of sensory receptors
|
to transduce incoming stimuli into an electrical stimuli
|
|
difference between afferent and efferent neurons:
|
afferent-- going TO CNS
efferent-- going AWAY from CNS |
|
functional categories of sensory receptors
|
somatosensory receptors
mechanosensitive receptors chemoreceptors electromagnetic receptors nociceptors |
|
you can smell someone's perfume. which sensory receptors are being used?
|
chemoreceptors
|
|
functional categories of sensory receptors
|
somatosensory
mechanosensitive chemoreceptors electromagnetic nociceptors |
|
receptors that sense taste, smell, osmoreceptors, carotid body
|
chemoreceptors
|
|
Which receptor responds to light?
|
electromagnetic receptors
|
|
responds to pain
|
nociceptors
|
|
responds to pressure, touch, gravity, sound
|
mechanosensitive receptors
|
|
explain how learning and memory are enhanced via LTP in the hippocampus- go!
|
-release of gluatmate
-AMPA, NMDA receptors -AMPA opens first, depolarizes the cell -NMDA allows Na, K, and Ca to go through -Ca helps AMPA respond better, increases number of AMPA, and allows NO to diffuse into presynaptic cell |
|
how do birds know when to travel west?
|
their electromagnetic receptors that sense the electromagnetic field of the earth
|
|
pain tends to have what type of receptor response?
|
tonic!
we don't want to "get used" to pain |
|
proprioceptors have what type of receptor response?
|
tonic!
we constantly have to be aware of where are body is |
|
photoreceptors and olfactory receptors have what type of receptor response?
|
phasic!
we get used to a smell or a light |
|
what type of receptor response allows one to filter out background noise?
|
phasic receptors
|
|
what allows you to not notice the intensity of salt in your saliva?
|
phasic receptors!
|
|
sensory organ that contains ciliated receptor cells that respond to mechanical deformation
|
statocyst
|
|
particles within statocyst are called what and do what?
|
statoliths
move and settle to lowest point (due to gravity) |
|
how do statoliths cause depolarization
|
distort membranes of ciliated receptor cells
|
|
what allows invertebrates to position themselves in space?
|
statocysts
|
|
loudness is measured in..
|
decibels (dB)
|
|
at what sustained decibel can it become detrimental to your hearing?
|
80 dB
|
|
the human ear has a pitch or frequency from what to what?
|
20-20,000 Hz
|
|
In what range of frequencies is the human ear most sensitive to?
|
1,000-3,000 (normal human conversation)
|
|
three bones of the inner ear
|
the ossicles
malleus, incus, stapes |
|
Sound travels from tympanic membranes to...
|
malleus- incus - stapes - oval window
|
|
What causes the bending of the hair cells in the ear?
|
tectorial membrane
|
|
what type of channels may become activated in the hair cells?
|
mechanosensitive channels
|
|
when hair cells bend which way do they become excited (depolarized)?
|
to the right
aka. towards the longer stereocilia |
|
some channels are open in a hair cell, what could this mean?
|
it is most likely at rest, neurotransmitters are passing through even when no sound is really being made. more channels will be open causing a change in the Vm when actual sound is produced
|
|
region where hair cells lie
|
ampulla
|
|
receptors for which tastes contain ion channels?
|
salts, acids
|
|
carbs are part of what taste system?
|
sweet taste system
|
|
salty taste system
|
minerals
|
|
umami taste system
|
amino acids (proteins)
|
|
roles of the taste system:
|
detect nutrients, avoid toxins
|
|
give bitter taste
|
toxins.
plant alkaloids, venoms, toxins, pharmaceuticals |
|
taste system were not sure why we have
|
sour
but.. if something is sour we know it doesn't have its full nutritional value |
|
receptors for which tastes contain g protein coupled receptors?
|
sweet, bitter, umami
|
|
in which type of neuron would opening a Cl- channel depolarize the cell?
|
olfactory receptor neurons
|
|
acts as an initial fixed lens in the vertebrate eye
|
cornea
|
|
hole in the center of the eye that allows light in
|
pupil
|
|
diameter of the hole in the center of the eye is determined by..
|
the iris
|
|
focuses the light onto back of the eye
|
lens
|
|
made up of cells involved in phototransduction
|
retina
|
|
liquid in the deeper part of the eye
|
vitreous humor
|
|
liquid in the initial part of the eye
|
aqueous humor
|
|
blind spot in your eye
|
optic disk
|
|
process by which the lens changes shape to keep image in focus
|
accommodation
|
|
what alters the shape of the lens?
|
ciliary muscles
|
|
loss of lens accommodation
|
presbyopia
|
|
farsightedness
|
hyperopia
(focal point falls behind the retina) |
|
nearsightedness
|
myopia
(focal point falls in front of retina) |
|
imperfectly shaped cornea
|
astigmatism
(generates 2 images) |
|
name two examples of animals that have retina in "proper" orientation (unlike us)
|
squid, octopus
|
|
name 3 characteristics of a bird eye
|
1. avascular retina
2. high # of cones (color, acuity) -humans: 150,000 -sparrows: 400,000 -hawks: 1,000,000 3. multiple fovea (they can focus on multiple places at once) |
|
noctornal animals have what that allows them to see at night?
|
tapetum (reflective layer)
|
|
cells that are activated under low light conditions
|
rods
|
|
cells concentrated in fovea
|
cones
|
|
Cone characteristics:
|
lower sensitivity; day vision
less photopigment lower amplification high temporal integration more sensitive to direct axial rays |
|
Rod characteristics;
|
high sensitivity to light;night vision
more numerous more photopigment; captures more light high amplification low temporal resolution more sensitive to scattered light |
|
what cells contain rhodopsin
|
rods
|
|
what cells have three different photopigments
|
cones
|
|
absorption of light changes the conformation of..
|
retinal
|
|
retinal + opsin =
|
rhodopsin
|
|
muscles are attached to bones in
|
antagonistic pairs
|
|
in the dark, cGMP concentration is..
|
HIGH
|
|
In the dark, is rhodopsin inactive or active?
|
inactive
|
|
thin filaments of actin
|
I- bands
|
|
thick myosin filaments overlapping with actin
|
A bands
|
|
thick myosin filaments only
|
H zone
|
|
made of proteins that attach to actin, defines the basic unit of a contraction, the sarcomere
|
Z line
|
|
attachment site for thick filaments
|
M line
|
|
in contraction, the Z line to Z line would..
|
shorten
|
|
as the sarcomere shortens,
the I bands... the H zone... the A band... |
shortens,
is reduced, is unchanged |
|
When ATP is bound to myosin head, its in what state?
|
low energy state
|
|
contraction of an individual muscle fiber (cell) is what kind of event?
|
all-or-none event
"twitch" |
|
contraction of a whole muscle is what kind of event?
|
a graded event
determined by number of muscle fibers contracting and rate of contraction (frequency of action potentials) |
|
graded responses occurs because of..
|
summation
|
|
if contraction of muscles becomes sustained with out any relaxations, this is called..
|
tetanus
|
|
what allows you to stand on your job for 4 hrs (why don't your muscles fatigue)?
|
asynchronous recruitment
(some muscle fibers are contracting while others are relaxing) |
|
2 primary lymphoid tissues
|
thymus gland and bone marrow
|
|
secondary lymphoid tissues
|
spleen, lymph nodes
|
|
traps and removes aging or damaged red blood cells by phagocytosis
|
spleen
|
|
has immune cells to assist in trapping foreign invaders
|
spleen
|
|
associated with vessels of lymphatic system
|
lymph nodes
|
|
net flow from capillaries into interstitial fluid, this fluid is picked up by lymph vessels
|
lymph nodes
|
|
contains clusters of macrophages to trap pathogens
|
lymph nodes
|
|
disease-causing agent
|
pathogen
|
|
bacteria, viruses, fungi, one-celled protozoans are all an example of what when ingested in the body?
|
microbes
|
|
What is an example of some larger pathogens?
|
tapeworms, hookworms, other multicellular parasites
|
|
molecules or cells not of the body potentially can elicit an immune response (pollens, chemicals, foreign bodies, being "allergic")
|
foreign substances
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immune system functions:
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protection from pathogens
removal of dead of damaged tissues recognition and removal of abnormal cells |
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circulate through the extracellular compartment looking for damaged or dying cells to engulf or digest
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scavenger cells
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why do people with AIDS contract a lot of cancers
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their immune system isnt working, therefore recognition and removal of abnormal cells is not happening!
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immune system's mechanism for distinguishing "self" from "non-self" fails
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autoimmune disease
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examples of autoimmune diseases
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diabetes mellitus, rhematoid arthritis
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two types of defense against pathogens
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innate immunity
acquired immunity |
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present before pathogenic invasion; effective before birth; non-specific
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innate immunity
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responds after exposure to pathogen; very specific to the pathogen
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acquired immunity
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skin, mucous membranes, and secretions are examples of
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barrier defenses within our innate immunity system
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internal defenses within our innate immunity system. name all 5
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phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, inflammatory response, natural killer cells are all an example of
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antibodies defend against infection in body fluids (example of..)
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humoral response within acquired immunity
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cytotoxic lymphocytes defend against infection in body cells is an example of..
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cell-mediated response within acquired immunity
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t/f it takes a short amount of time for the acquired immunity to respond
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false. it can takes days or weeks, but its vERY specific
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what are the primary phagocytic cells
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macrophages and neutrophils
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primary scavengers of the tissues
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macrophages
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compound that activates immune response
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antigen
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is an antigen-presenting cell, ingest molecular and cellular antigen and express parts on their cell surface
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macrophages
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most abundant of the white blood cells
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neutrophils
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phagocytic, ingesting 5-20 bacteria during their 1-2 day lifespan
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neutrophils
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release a number of cytokines, including pyrogens and those involved in the inflammatory response
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neutrophils
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what fuses with the vacoule containing microbes in the phagocytosis?
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lysosome
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fever production is an example of what kind of defense?
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internal innate defense
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fever-producing cytokine
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pyrogens
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why would you want to allow a fever to prolong?
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fevers increase activity of white blood cells in the immune response
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directly attack pathogens or interfere with their reproduction
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antimicrobial proteins
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digests cell walls of bacteria
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lysozyme
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increase of temperature, attraction of white blood cells and swelling associated with tissue injury or pathogenic infection
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inflammatory response
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released from mast cells and basophils
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histamine
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what does histamine do?
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increase white blood cells to injury site
opens pores in capillaries dilate blood vessels, increase blood flow to the region |
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concentrated under the mucus membranes in airways and the digestive tract
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mast cells
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prevents mast cell degranulation or block histamine receptor
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antihistamines
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inhalation of antigens can trigger what?
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histamine release
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molecules released from one cell that effect the growth or activity of another cell
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cytokines
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attack virus-infected and cancerous cells by recognizing certain protein signatures on these cells and triggering apoptosis (cell death)
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natural killer cells
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natural killer cells release two proteins:
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perforins and granzymes
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two proteins that trigger cell death
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perforins and granzymes
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form pores in infected/cancerous cells
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perforins
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have membrane receptors that react to specific types of pathogens
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lymphocytes
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formed in the bone marrow, produce primary and secondary antibody responses, purpose is to secrete antibodies
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B lymphocytes (B cells)
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contraction of relaxation of what muscles alters the shape of the lens?
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ciliary muscles
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will the lens of your eye be more or less round to see an object close up?
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more round!
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molluscs don't suffer from things like hyperopia and myopia, why?
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they don't have muscles that are changing their lens, they have something that goes back and forth---get the details on this!
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what are the photoreceptors?
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rods and cones
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where would you find the most densely packed coned region in the eye?
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the fovea
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rhodopsin is found where?
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in the rods
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how many photopigments do rods have?
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1- just rhodopsin
which is why they don't detect color-- everything comes in just 1 tone |
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how many photopigments do cones have?
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3
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how does one become colorblind?
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a defect in their cones!
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absorption of light changes the confirmation of______, which then alters the shape of_____
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retinal; opsin
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the G protein in the rods are called..
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transducin
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cGMP levels are _______ in the dark
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HIGH
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rhodopsin is found where in the rods?
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in the transducin (G protein)
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when cGMP levels are high in the rods, what can flow into the cell?
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Calcium! and Sodium! (Ca, Na) which will majorly depolarize the cell!
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the influx of cation into the rods is referred to as
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the dark current
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when retinal absorbs light and unbinds from opsin this is called..
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bleaching
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what activates the G protein (transducin)?
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activated opsin
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what activates phosphodiesterase?
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activated transducin (G protein)
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when transducin is activated and phosphodiesterase is activated what happens to cGMP?
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it decreases, causing the Na+ channels to close, causing the cell to hyperpolarize
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as the rods begin to hyperpolarize what will eventually happen?
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the neurotransmitter release decreases
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fluid held under pressure in a closed environment
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hydrostatic
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cnidarians, annelids, and nematodes all have which type of skeleton?
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hydrostatic skeleton
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how does a hydrostatic skeleton animal move?
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changes shape of fluid-filled compartments with muscle/contractile cells
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hard covering of the body surface including shells or cuticles that attach to underlying muscles
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exoskeleton
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hard, supporting structures (ie. bones) encased in the soft tissues of animals
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endoskeleton
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what type of skeleton do sponges have?
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endoskeleton
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sponges have what that are hard, inorganic material
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spicules (like our bones)
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echinoderms contain what that makes them considered an endoskeleton?
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ossicles- containing calcium carbonate or magnesium carbonate bound with proteins
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endoskeleton of calcified bones or cartilage often joined by ligaments or to muscles by tendons
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chordates (like us for example!)
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shortens the muscle, placing force on the tendon, pulling the more movable bone inward
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contraction
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which is the insertion and which is the origin when classifying two bones
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insertion= the one moving
origin=the more stable bone |
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what is unique about a muscle fiber (cell)
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its multinucleated (because its a product of some fused cells)
and its HUGE |
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thick filaments
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myosin
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thin filaments
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actin
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long coiled tail and globular head,
globular head had ATPase activity |
myosin
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how many myosin molecules make up one thick filament?
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250 myosin molecules
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globular, units form helical structure F-actin
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G- actin
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rod shaped, closely associated with actin
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tropomyosin
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3 protein complex that helps form a barrier to formation of cross-bridges between actin and myosin (at rest)
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troponin
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transducin activates phosphodiesterase, what does phosphodiesterase do?
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breaks down cGMP
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light causes what
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hyperpolarization and a decrease in neurotransmitter release
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when myosin head is bound to ATP it is in a low energy state and at what angle?
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45 degree
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When the myosin head has hydrolyzed ATP-- ADP + Pi, it is in a high energy state and what angle?
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90 degree
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What hydrolyzes ATP?
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ATPase
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After the myosin head has formed a cross bridge with the actin, it cannot go back to its low energy state until what?
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ADP + Pi is released from the myosin head
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After the ADP + Pi have been released from the myosin head, the myosin head is still attached to the actin. What allows it to detach?
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A new ATP binding to the myosin head allows it to unattach from the actin
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At rest, what blocks the myosin binding site?
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tropomyosin
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calcium in the myofibril will bind to what?
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troponin C
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When talking about muscle cells, action potentials in neurons lead to the release of what neurotransmitter?
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acetylcholine
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t/f one motor neuron can innervate multiple muscle fibers.
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true
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all of the individual muscle fibers that are driven by a single motor neuron is called what?
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a motor unit
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pyrogens, released from the neutrophils, go to where?
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hypothalamus!-- sets body temperature higher!
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Why would the body want to induce a fever?
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increase activity of white blood cells in the immune response (everything works better at higher temperature right!)
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these antimicrobial proteins are activated by pathogens to eventually lyse microbes or activate acquired immune responses
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complement proteins
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antimicrobial protein produced by virus-infected cells that activate other defenses related to inhibition of viral reproduction
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interferons {alpha or beta} (interfering with a virus having a good time!)
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antimicrobial proteins secreted by lymphocytes that leads to macrophage activation
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interferon (y)
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antimicrobial protein secreted by macrophages - damage pathogens, leading to their destruction
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defensins
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all osmoconformers are what kind of animals?
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marine animals!
they all live in seawater! |
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t/f euryhaline animals can be osmoconformers or osmoregulators
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true
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the champion of osmoregulators, spends 30% of its energy to osmoregulate
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salt lake brine fish!
lives in a HIgHLy hyperosmotic environment |
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goldfish are a good example of what type of osmoregulator?
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stenohaline
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the champion of euryhaline organisms?
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tilapia-- which means they can withstand a large amount of change in their osmolarity environment
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most invertebrate marine animals are osmoconformers or osmoregulators?
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osmoconformers
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most marine vertebrates and some marine invertebrates are.. osmo--?
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osmoregulators!
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most marine invertebrates are osmoconformers, however, what is a common problem they have?
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their solutes concentrations do not match!
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Which marine animal is unlike most in that their tissues are HYPERosmotic to their environment?
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the shark!
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What do sharks maintain high concentrations of to keep their tissues hyperosmolar to their environment?
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urea + TMAO
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How do euryhaline fish do it?!
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they osmoregulate like marine fish in salt water environments, and like freshwater fish in freshwater! brilliant!
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what is it called when organisms can survive when the water they're living in dries up!
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anhydrobiosis
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name some organisms that exhibit anhydrosis..
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nematodes, rotifers, tardigrades
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true or false. tardigrades can live in absolute freezing temperatures and also extreme heat.
|
true
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name ways land animals have evolved to prevent water loss:
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keratinized skin, shells, insect exoskeleton, nocturnal behavior
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despite how hard we try, land animals still have water loss. what are some ways?
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perspiration, gas exchange (moist surfaces!), excretion (urine, feces)
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where does the kangaroo rat derive most of its water?
|
metabolism!
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what forces water and solutes into the excretory tubule?
|
blood pressure
|
|
solutes move selectively across what to the blood or lumen?
|
transporting epithelium
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flatworms contain what structures to perform osmoregulation?
|
protonephridia
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annelids (earthworms) have what structure to perform osmoregulation?
|
metanephridium
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in vertebrates, what structure helps to osmoregulate?
|
kidneys
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what structures do insects and terrestrial arthropods have that perform osmoregulation?
|
malpighian tubules
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t/f kidneys use about 25% of our cardiac output
|
true
|
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what enables mammals to produce urine that is hyperosmotic to the body fluids?
|
juxtamedullary nephrons
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what is the only thing that can leave/enter the descending limb of the loop of henle?
|
water!
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the ascending limb of the loop of henle is more permeable to what? and less permeable to what?
|
more permeable to solutes, less permeable to water
|
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how does the osmolarity of the filtrate in the ascending loop of henle decrease?
|
NaCl is actively transported out!
|
|
what plays a key role in salt and potassium concentrations in the body fluids as well as pH?
|
the distal tubule of the nephron
|
|
if there is a high water permeability in your collecting duct, what will your urine be like?
|
very dilute, because a lot of water is being retained
|
|
what causes the juxtaglomerular apparatus to release renin?
|
when blood pressure drops or blood volume drops (from blood loss or reduced intake of salt)
|
|
what releases angiotensinogen?
|
liver
|
|
how does angiotensin 2 raise blood pressure?
|
constricting arterioles and influencing the adrenal gland to secrete aldosterone
|
|
what does angiotensin 2 stimulate adrenal glands to do?
|
release a hormone called aldosterone
|
|
what makes the distal tubules reabsorb more sodium and water?
|
aldosterone
|
|
what does aldosterone do? who secretes it?
|
aldosterone acts on the distal tubule on the nephron by making it reabsorb more sodium and water. it is originally secreted by the adrenal gland
|
|
what senses fluid flow in the kidneys?
|
macula densa
|
|
what does atrial naturietic factor do?
|
inhibits sodium absorbtion from distal tubules and inhibits release of renin from juxtaglomerular cells
|
|
What performs basically the opposite of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system?
|
the atrial-naturietic-factor
|
|
how is it possible to have a concentrated urine of 300 mOsm or above??
|
the interstitial fluid of the renal medulla has a HIGH osmolarity! Hyperosmotic!
|
|
What would be a stimulus that would influence the heart to secrete ANF (atrial natriuretic factor)?
|
HIGH blood pressue-- it will do the opposite of the RAAS system. It will inhibit juxtaglomerular cells from secreting renin and inhibit the distal tubules from absorbing sodium!
|
|
a mammal living in a water environment and trying to release as much water as possible might have what adaptation in their kidneys?
|
short loop of henle-- thus little control over concentrating urine
|
|
common opening for the digestive tract, urinary, and reproductive tracts in animals like iguanas
|
cloaca
|
|
birds constantly fight water loss but they don't have as developed loops of henle, what is their solution?
|
they excrete uric acid as a paste with little water
|
|
animals like iguanas fight water loss constantly, they only have cortical nephrons so their urine is isoosmotic. What is their solution?
|
they have a cloaca which helps reabsorb water in the urine/feces, and excretes uric acid
|
|
What adaptations have freshwater fish made in their kidneys to keep their tissues at the right osmolarity?
|
have HIGH number of nephrons=LARGE volume of filtrate (so they can urinate a lot!)
can reabsorb salts in distal tubule |
|
What adaptations have animals like frogs made to maintain their tissue osmolarity?
|
in water: kidney adaptations like fish; use active transport to transport salts from water across their skin
on land: conserve water by reabsorbing it across epithelium in their bladder; adjust rate of filtration |
|
marine water fish struggle to keep water IN their bodies, what adaptations have their kidneys made?
|
have smaller, fewer nephrons.
no distal tubule. small glomeruli. low filtration rate. small amount of urine! |
|
What is the main job of the kidneys in marine water fish?
|
to get rid of Mg, Ca, and So4 ions in sea water! these are secreted in the proximal tubule and excreted from there
|
|
You would not want to take an antihistamine while you have an infection (or just sick) why?
|
because antihistamines block the release of histamine from mast cells which help in fighting against antigens
|
|
What is diapedesis
|
increase capillary permeability
|
|
what are enzymes that destroy proteins called? and what particular ones do natural killer cells secrete?
|
proteases; granzymes
|
|
Acquired immunity is primarily mediated by what?
|
lymphocytes
|
|
What do lymphocytes have the ability to do specifically?
|
recognize specific antigens
|
|
What is an epitope?
|
the portion of the antigen where the lymphocyte binds
|
|
What is the primary purpose of the B lymphocytes?
|
to secrete antibodies
|
|
Mature B cells or B lymphocytes have what on their surface?
|
antibodies for a specific antigen
|
|
How are T lymphocytes or T cells derived?
|
they've migrated to the Thymus gland from bone marrow
|
|
What do T lymphocytes participate in?
|
cell-mediated immunity
|
|
Which type of lymphocyte recognizes intact antigens?
|
B cells
|
|
example of passive immunity
|
mother to fetus; immuglobulin shot; snake venom
|
|
What type of cell does the HIV/AIDS virus selectively attack?
|
the helper T cells!
|
