Biology in Society

Existentialist.
Valued the subjective as much as the objective.

Scientific objectivity is nothing but a socially constructed charade.

Complex systems are merely a sum of their parts.

Complex systems are more than the sum of their parts. ARISTOTLE.

Knowledge arises from experience-derived evidence, particularly sensory perception. LOCKE, BERKELEY. A posteriori justification.

Knowledge arises independent of experience, and exclusively from intellectual reasoning.

Knowledge of the eternal truths (mathematics, metaphysics) can be derived from rationalist deduction alone, whereas knowledge of the world requires experience and use of the scientific method. Doubted information based on sensory perception alone.
Primarily rationalist.
Some ideas are innate.

Differentiating between the body (res extensa) and mind (res cogitans).

Cultural movement popular during the 20s, politically anarchist. Dreams, unexpected juxtaposition of elements...

Rejected the method of induction, said that the scientific method limits progress. Disagreed with consistency criterion, 2 arguments should be considered equal.

Empiricist.
The problem of universality of inductive truth. Sun rising example.
The problem of sampling. Swan example.
Argued against Descartes' view on innate ideas.
Bundle theory.

All hypotheses are of equal value.
Critical rationalism - refutation of incorrect hypotheses and elaboration of positive ones.
Until the hypothesis is disproven there is no reason to reject the assumption that it is correct.
Reliance on the individual scientist.

Evolutionary advance of knowledge.
Founded the classical scientific method with John Stuart MILL.
Reaffirmed the importance of detached objectivity.

Paradigm shifts (revolutionary science).
Significant anomalies throw the paradigm into crisis, new scientific revolution might take place. Scientists cannot go on believing disproven dogma.

Groups of scientists are locked into 'thought collectives'.
Truth is an unnattainable ideal.

Merge of Kuhn's and Popper's ideas.
Scientists change auxiliary hypotheses to fit main hypothesis.

Science describes real features of the world, not a coincidence. Hilary PUTMAN.

Realist.
No miracles.

Theories evaluated on how effectively they explain and predict phenomena, as opposed to how accurately they describe objective reality. John DEWEY.

Compromise between empiricist scientific views and rationalist religious views - holding the consequences of the hypothesis as most important dissolves metaphysical debate.

Not divine causation, natural causes!

Critical evaluation of problems with no deference to authorities.
Logos > mythos.
Founded reductionism.
Water as a first principle.

Everything that exists has always existed.
Rationalism is faith in human reason.

Everything is in flux.

Everything consists of atoms and space.

Extension of reductionism to mathematics.

Problem broken down into a series of smaller questions, the answers for which will lead to the solution of the original problem.

Knowledge is justified true belief.
Everything has a form.
Created the first university.

Belief in intellect-derived knowledge beyond experience.

Rejected extreme rationalism.
Classification system of proto-induction.
Teleological view - the explanation of nature in terms of purpose and design.
Rejected the experimental approach.

Medieval scientist, advocated experimental method.
"Science demands careful observation and is grounded in mathematics- experimental science is the queen of knowledge"

Occam's Razor - if 2 theories explain a phenomenon equally well then the one that makes the fewest new assumptions should be selected.

Developed Socratic method with graduated experiments.
Discovered magnetism.

Logical positivism/empiricism.
All knowledge can be reduced to logical and scientific foundations.

Statements about material objects can be reduced to statements about sense-data.

Synthesis of empiricism and rationalism - necessary to have both reason and experience.
Primarily rationalist.
Deontology.

Identity, unity, authority and certainty.

Difference, plurality, textuality and skepticism.
Late (consumer) capitalism post-WWII.
Often linked to relativism and constructivism.

Scientific knowledge sociologists

There are many radically different yet equal ways of knowing the world, with science being just one of them.

The world we seek to know about is not independent of us and our social context; all facts are constructed to affect our contingent needs and interests as social beings.

The scientific method does not accurately define laboratory practice - scientists are trained to subjectively decide what to consider as data.

Criticism of postmodernism in science and maths, particularly cognitive relativism.

All concepts are objectively reasonable regardless of cultural or social perspective.

Science and humanities are two diametrically opposed cultures. Dichotomy not beneficial.

Polymath.
Essence and existence.

Nick Cudworth
Kit Williams
Ian Breakwell
Karen Ingham

Coined the term 'scientific revolution'.

'The common element of scientific vision is rebellion against the restrictions imposed by the locally prevailing culture.'

Mercury (spirit), sulphur (emotions) and salt (body) as the three elements.

All aspects of nature are attributed to matter.
Questioned the source of energy, motion, life, consciousness and space.

Incompatibility and mutual exclusivism create motivation for change so everything is auto-dynamic.

Aspects in nature tend to increase in quantity by negating themseves.

Development of entities leads to a 'leap in nature' such as the origin of life.

Bioentrepreneur.
Synthesised first artificial genome.
Used shotgun sequencing in the Human Genome Project.

Developed the atomic bomb.

Haber-Bosch process.
Chemical warfare.

Suggested 3 somatotypes: endo, ecto and mesomorphs with corresponding psychological profiles.

Eugenicist
Nature vs. nurture argument.

Copernican heliocentric views.
Sunspots - imperfect heavens.
Atomism.

Opposed Darwin's theory of evolution.

Conflict thesis
Independence thesis
Dialogue thesis
Integration thesis
Demarcation problem.

1) Criticism of the view that science can describe all reality and knowledge,
2) Violation in which scientific findings are inappropriately used in other disciplines. Peterson.

7 principles of science.

True virtues exist in everyone.
Against sophist view that virtues can be taught.
Desire to be good is universal, but perception of what is good varies.

Dichotomy of morals - slave and master morality.
'Morals are human creations' immoralist.
Existing morals derived from societies and religions that no longer exist.
Survival of the fittest separates the animal world and civilisation.

KANT.
Moral actions are right, regardless of consequences.

Moral worth is determined by consequences, aim to maximise happiness for the greatest number of people.
Self on the same level as others.
BENTHAM. STUART MILL.

Pursuit of happiness through elimination of pain.

Self above others.
Ayn RAND.

Duty and interest are perfectly coincident.

Hobbes
Locke

Rational egoism for maximisation of self interest.
Outside agent imposes a framework within which egoism can flourish without moral anarchy.

Emphasis on character development.
Arete, phronesis, eudaimonia.
Elizabeth ANSCOMBE.

People naturally have uncorrupted morals.
Vs. HOBBES.

Moral judgement arises for each individual case, although there is a moral 'rule of thumb'.
DANCY.

Animal rights.

Man is the measure of all things.
Subjectivity.

'Essay on Man'.
Applied rationalism to vindicate the ways of God to man.

Moral propositions are relative to historical, cultural, social and personal circumstances.
FOUCALT, QUINE.

No systematic way to learn morals from experience.
TANNSJO.

Extreme rationalism.
Everything is just a bad version of their perfect forms.
The ultimate virtue is the pursuit of truth.
The life that is unexamined is not worth living.

Empiricist.
Mind is like a tabula rasa.
No innate knowledge. HUME.
No innate morals.

Empiricist.
"To be is to be perceived"

Criticised Bertrand Russel.
“Philosophy should be about real world not an abstract world beyond our existence.”

“Science is innocent until proven guilty, while philosophy is guilty unless proven innocent”
“Philosophy should be built on science rather than the other way around because there is less risk of error in science."

“Man has to awaken to wonder and so perhaps do peoples. Science is a way of sending them to sleep again.”

British – focused on data and results
Continental – focused on effect of science on society

Belief in innate knowledge.

Hume's problems exist, but results in the main will correspond to predicitions.

Against sciArt.

‘A moral maze’ “At the end of the century, it is hard to be confident either about the moral law or about moral progress”

“Opinions alter, manners change, creeds rise and fall, but the moral law is written on the tablets of entity”

“I am not sure whether what the philosophers called ‘ethical absolutes’ exist, but I am sure we have to act as if they do.”

Egoism can lead to causing others unhappiness.

Lord Acton
Rosseau
Socrates
Plato

Locke
Hume

Descartes
Pinker
Chomsky