ESL - Cert - Anaheim U - Unit 02 - Listening

active purposeful process to decipher meaning from spoken words.

old thinking: passive-listen, reading; active-speaking, writing

listening, reading vs speaking , writing

essential skill for interactive verbal communication; through the normal course of a day, listening is used nearly twice as much as speaking and four to five times as much as reading and writing (Rivers, 1981).

in hearers schema, in speakers words, speakers intention

very often the communication is happening in real -time

conversation versus speech, lecture

reading & writing v listening & speaking

in teaching language most dominant methodologies in the early 19th century focused on non-productive reading and writing activites/skills.

direct method and audiolingual method

challenging language that is slightly above the the current linguistic level of the learner

a language teaching method based on the concept that interaction is the key to language learning and that students must have opportunities to communicate during lessons.

Stephen Krashen's theory stating it is necessary for the learner to understand input language that is slightly beyond the learner's current level as a basis for learning.

1-bottom-up versus top-down processing; 2-schema theory and background knowledge; 3-building bridges between the known and the new: the essence of learning; 4-integrating top-down and bottom-up processing: interactive processing

detail understanding of discourse components from morphemes to text as opposed to using general subject matter knowledge to prediction or guess meaning

using background knowledge to process meaning; getting the overall idea, the gist.

active purposeful process to decipher meaning from spoken words.

old thinking related to belief that only production is active therefore: passive-listen, reading; active-speaking, writing

listening, reading vs speaking , writing

active purposeful process to decipher meaning from spoken words.

old thinking: passive-listen, reading; active-speaking, writing

listening, reading vs speaking , writing

essential skill for interactive verbal communication; through the normal course of a day, listening is used nearly twice as much as speaking and four to five times as much as reading and writing (Rivers, 1981).

in hearers schema, in speakers words, speakers intention

very often the communication is happening in real -time

conversation versus speech, lecture

reading & writing v listening & speaking

in teaching language most dominant methodologies in the early 19th century focused on non-productive reading and writing activites/skills.

direct method and audiolingual method

challenging language that is slightly above the the current linguistic level of the learner

a language teaching method based on the concept that interaction is the key to language learning and that students must have opportunities to communicate during lessons.

Stephen Krashen's theory stating it is necessary for the learner to understand input language that is slightly beyond the learner's as a basis for learning.

1-bottom-up versus top-down processing; 2-schema theory and background knowledge; 3-building bridges between the known and the new: the essence of learning; 4-integrating top-down and bottom-up processing: interactive processing

deatil understanding of discourse compenents from morphemes to text as opposed to using general subject matter knwoledge to prediction or guess meaning

using background knowledge to process meaning; getting the overall idea, the gist.

using component parts: words, grammar, and the like to proces meaning

more expansive the schema the better a person is able to comprehend through read, write, speak and listen.

Building bridges between the known and the new

Integrating top-down and bottom-up processing

specific, general idea, inferences; “It’s not what you’re listening to, it’s what you’re listening for."; The importance of listening purpose; Match purpose to strategy: e.g. listening to get a general idea, versus listening for specific information; “Listening between the lines” for things that are unstated: inferencing e.g. “What are the speakers’ emotional states?”

predicting/anticipating, inferring,

Match purpose to strategy: e.g. listening to get a general idea, versus listening for specific information

“Listening between the lines” for things that are unstated. e.g. “What are the speakers’ emotional states?”

reception, inference, relating to schema, gist, specific meaning; Focus on reception not production – students should be able to respond in real time; The only way we can evaluate successful reception is through production, but keep production tasks short; Listening in a second language demands the simultaneous processing of meaning and language; Exposure to a wide range of tasks prepare them to deal with different types of listening texts

students should be able to respond in real time

Is through production, but keep production tasks short

simultaneous processing of meaning and language

types of listening texts

The nature of spoken texts poses considerable challenges: redundancy, false starts, rephrasing, speed of delivery, accents, etc.; Cognitive load as a factor in task difficulty; Task authenticity: Real-world versus pedagogical; Input (text) authenticity: from genuine to minimal

redundancy, false starts, rephrasing, speed of delivery, accents, etc.

cognitive load as a factor in task difficulty

Real-world versus pedagogical

from genuine to minimal

Principle 5: Teach listening strategies

Conscious steps taken as part of an overall plan to achieve a goal/objective

1-Listening for specific information: micro listening, bits and pieces, decide what you want to know, dictation and cloze, listening for gist. 2-Adding gist: main ideas, what is the order?, Which picture?; 3-Listening between lines: inference, focus on emotions; look for background information.

Using learners who have mastered L2 as examples, motivation, and tutors

purpose is reacon for activity strartegy is conscious steps to achieve purpose, and skill is unconscious abilities to execute steps to achieve purpose

Receptive refers to receiving information/language, as opposed to productive which means producing information/language. Activities can also be considered as active or passive. Passive to me means no added information/value - what is, is. And listening, on the surface, would seem to be a passive activity - it is not; but the mental picture is of someone just being there while the information washes over them, but in fact there is a lot going going beneath the surface inthe listeners grey matter. Listeners add meaning to the words they hear, either through inference or custom or cultural shorthand that is understood in the listener's language community. It was also mentioned in the book and confirmed by my own experience that in English, and I suppose in other languages, a lot of words are left out and left unsaid - we add the meaning based on context; an arrow pointing up by a door like structure usually means access to upper floors - either by stairs or elevator.

There is an awful lot of mental activity that goes into understanding, sometimes, even the most simple of messages, especially when spoken. This is because language can be imprecise and many times much of the meaning of communication comes from contextual inference - reading between the lines (when someone is talking about bare/bear arms - are they talking about fashion or the 2nd amendment), or mentally filling in customarily/understood language (arrow pointing up on a button next to a door - meaning elevator), and prosodic behaviors - tone, volume, mood (is the shouting glee or distress); and also considering language forms such as sarcasm - opposite meaning from words to be decoded, and message styles such as irony.

When language teaching methds morphed from audioingualism's 2nd language competence from developing habits from extensive L2 drilling to communicative language teaching's emphasis on conversation not drill in the 1970s and early 1980s, teachers needed some understanding of what level of natural conversation was best for 2nd langugage learning. It was at this point that Stephen Krashen offered his Input Hypothesis which said "for language learning to occur, it is necessary for the learner to understand input language.....slightly beyond the learner's present linguistic competence. This provided the guidance needed for language activities as communicative language teaching grew into the dominent teaching method.

simultaneously or serially using top down and bottom-up info to extract meaning from communication

1. Listening for specific information: is listening aimed at extracting meaning regarding a certain narrowly defined subject/object/event/need. 2. Listening for gist: means to derive a general understanding of something being communicated to you. 3. Listening between the lines - Inferring: recognizing hidden or intended meaning in communication; things unsaid but present or deducible; predicting what people are going to talk about; guessing at unknown words or phrases; using background knowledge of the subject to determine meaning.

Task: modeled after a real-life; nonacademic task such as filling in a form; checks for understanding are created for classroom execution.

Text: spoken & written language which is created in the course of genuine communication rather than being specially created for the purposes of language learning and teaching.

ans: true or false

A. at our level of competence; B. a little higher than our level of competence; C. considerably higher than our level of competence; D. None of the above

A. using knowledge of language systems; B. using your imagination; C. using knowledge of the world; D. making guesses

A. To provide a context for interpretation; B. To preteach vocabulary and structures; C. To activate prior knowledge; D. All of the above

ans true or false

ans true or false

A. encourage predicting; B. get students filling in blanks; C. give students an opportunity to listen to the teacher; D. add a top-down dimension to dictation

A. inferencing; B. listening for specific information; C. listening for gist; D. predicting

A. inferencing; B. predicting; C. listening for specific information; D. listening for gist

A. listening for gist; B. predicting; C. inferencing; D. listening for specific information

This is because successful listening skills are acquired over time and with lots of practice.

It's frustrating for students because there are no rules as in grammar teaching. Speaking and writing also have very specific exercises that can lead to improved skills. This is not to say that there are not ways of improving listening skills, however they are difficult to quantify.

One of the largest inhibitors for students is often mental block. While listening, a student suddenly decides that he or she doesn't understand what is being said. At this point, many students just tune out or get caught up in an internal dialogue trying translate a specific word. Some students convince themselves that they are not able to understand spoken English well and create problems for themselves.

is to convince them that not understanding is OK. This is more of an attitude adjustment than anything else, and it is easier for some students to accept than others.

that they need to listen to English as often as possible, but for short periods of time.

Encourage them to get a film, or listen to an English radio station, but not to watch an entire film or listen for two hours. Students should often listen, but they should listen for short periods - five to ten minutes. This should happen four or five times a week. Even if they don't understand anything, five to ten minutes is a minor investement. However, for this strategy to work, students must not expect improved understanding too quickly.

Carol Van Duzer Center for Applied Linguistics Project in Adult Immigrant Education (PAIE) 2/1/1997

Through the normal course of a day, listening is used nearly twice as much as speaking and four to five times as much as reading and writing (Rivers, 1981).

found that listening was perceived to be crucial for communication at work with regards to entry-level employment, job success, general career competence, managerial competency, and effectiveness of relationships between supervisors and subordinates.

…. learn has become an important element in the adult English as a second language (ESL) classroom (Lund, 1990).

1-it discusses the factors affecting listening; 2-it describes the listening process; 3-it suggests guidelines to consider in teaching listening; 4-and it gives examples of activities for practicing and developing listening skills in adults learning English as a second language.

Listening is a demanding process, not only because of: 1-the complexity of the process itself, 2-but also due to factors that characterize the listener, the speaker, the content of the message; 3-and any visual support that accompanies the message (Brown & Yule, 1983).

1-Interest in a topic increases the listener's comprehension; the listener may tune out topics that are not of interest. 2- A listener who is an active participant in a conversation generally has more background knowledge to facilitate understanding of the topic than a listener who is, in effect, eavesdropping on a conversation between two people whose communication has been recorded on an audiotape. 3-Further, the ability to use negotiation skills, such as asking for clarification, repetition, or definition of points not understood, enable a listener to make sense of the incoming information.

1-Colloquial language and reduced forms make comprehension more difficult. The extent to which the speaker uses these language forms impacts comprehension. The more exposure the listener has to them, the greater the ability to comprehend. 2-A speaker's rate of delivery may be too fast, too slow, or have too many hesitations for a listener to follow. 3-Awareness of a speaker's corrections and use of rephrasing ("er. . . I mean . . .That is . . .") can assist the listener. Learners need practice in recognizing these speech habits as clues to deciphering meaning.

Content that is familiar is easier to comprehend than content with unfamiliar vocabulary or for which the listener has insufficient background knowledge.

Visual support, such as video, pictures, diagrams, gestures, facial expressions, and body language, can increase comprehension if the learner is able to correctly interpret it.

preparation to respond. These do not necessarily occur sequentially; they may occur simultaneously, in rapid succession, or backward and forward as needed.

1-identify a purpose/reason; 2-decide whether to deposit in short mem; 3-organize and or categorize the message; 4-predict message points; 5-recall any prior knowledge; 6-assign meaning; 7-comprehension check; 8-decide to remember (deposit in long term mem)or not; 9-delete short mem. Note: Each of these steps influences the techniques and activities a teacher might choose to incorporate into instruction in order to assist learners in learning to listen as well as listening to learn.

Why am I listening? WIFM? What do I have to do?

…..in short-term memory;

…. type of speech event (conversation, lecture, radio ad) and the function of the message (persuade, inform, request);

….information expected to be included in the message;

….background information (schemata) to help interpret the message;

….meaning to the message;

….checks that the message has

…. long-term memory;

…. deposited into short-term memory

At the same time, two types of cognitive processing are also occurring: bottom-up and top-down processing.

Top-down processing refers to utilizing schemata (background knowledge and global understanding) to derive meaning from and interpret the message. For example, in preparing for training on the operation of a new floor polisher, top-down processing is activated as the learner engages in an activity that reviews what the learner already knows about using the old floor polisher. This might entail discussing the steps in the polishing process; reviewing vocabulary such as switch, on, off, etc.; or generating a list of questions that the learner would like answered in the training.

Bottom-up processing refers to deriving the meaning of the message based on the incoming language data, from sounds, to words, to grammatical relationships, to meaning. Stress, rhythm, and intonation also play a role in bottom-up processing. Bottom-up processing would be activated as the learner is signaled to verify comprehension by the trainer/teacher asking a question using the declarative form with rising intonation ("You see that switch there?"). Practice in recognizing statements and questions that differ only in intonation help the learner develop bottom-up processing skills.

Learners need to be aware that both of these processes affect their listening comprehension, and they need to be given opportunities to practice employing each of them.

learners usually can comprehend more language than they can produce - extends language knowledge; allows for more authentic reproduction through mimic/duplication;

Current research and theory point to the benefit of providing a pre-speaking period for the beginning-level learner (Dunkel, 1991). Delaying language production gives learners the opportunity to store information in their memories. The silent period may be long or short. It could comprise several class periods of listening activities that foster vocabulary and build comprehension such as in the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach. Or, the silent period may consist of learners listening to a tape-recorded conversation two or three times before answering questions about the content.

gives learners the opportunity to store information in their memories. It also spares them the trauma of task overload and speaking before they are ready.

The < > may be long or short. It could comprise several class periods of listening activities that foster vocabulary and build comprehension such as in the Total Physical Response (TPR) approach. In this approach, the teacher gives a series of commands while demonstrating each one. Learners then show their comprehension by acting out the commands as repeated by the teacher. Learners themselves begin to give the commands as they feel comfortable speaking. Or, the silent period may consist of learners listening to a tape-recorded conversation two or three times before answering questions about the content. A listening period consistent with the demands of the following productive task works to enhance rather than inhibit language acquisition and helps the more advanced-level learner as well as the beginner.

In this approach, the teacher gives a series of commands while demonstrating each one. Learners then show their comprehension by acting out the commands as repeated by the teacher. Learners themselves begin to give the commands as they feel comfortable speaking.

listening relevant; material authentic;

Because learners listen with a purpose and listen to things that interest them, accounting for the goals and experiences of the learners will keep motivation and attention high. For example, if learners at a worksite need to be able to understand new policies and procedures introduced at staff meetings, in class they should be helped to develop the abilities to identify main ideas and supporting details, to identify cause and effect, to indicate comprehension or lack of comprehension, and to ask for clarification.

Authenticity should be evident both in language and in task. The language should reflect real discourse, including hesitations, rephrasing, and a variety of accents. Although the language needs to be comprehensible, it does not need to be constantly modified or simplified to make it easier for the level of the listener. Level of difficulty can be controlled by the selection of the task.

For example, in a unit on following instructions, at the beginning level, the learner might hear a command ("May I borrow your hammer?") and respond by choosing the correct item. At an intermediate level, the learner might hear a series of instructions ("Go to the broom closet, get the floor polisher, take it to the hall in front of the cafeteria, polish the floor there, then go to the . . .") and respond appropriately by tracing the route on a floor plan of the worksite. An advanced-level learner might listen to an audio tape of an actual work meeting and write a summary of the instructions the supervisor gave the team.

top-down oriented activities encourage the learners to discuss what they already know about a topic, and bottom-up practice activities give confidence in accurate hearing and comprehension of the components of the language (sounds, words, intonation, grammatical structures).

Predicting, asking for clarification, and using non-verbal cues are examples of strategies that increase chances for successful listening.

using video can help learners develop cognitive strategies. As they view a segment with the sound off, learners can be asked to make predictions about what is happening by answering questions about setting, action, and interaction; viewing the segment again with the sound on allows them to confirm or modify their hypothesis (Rubin, 1995).

Teachers should avoid using activities that tend to focus on memory rather than on the process of listening or that simply give practice rather than help learners develop listening ability. For example, simply having the learners listen to a passage followed by true/false questions might indicate how much the learners remembered rather than helping them to develop the skill of determining main idea and details.

determine the main idea and details of message and respond accordingly.

help learners to focus attention on what to listen for, to assess how accurately they succeeded, and to transfer the listening skill to the world beyond the classroom.

The teacher can facilitate the development of listening ability by creating < > that guide the learner through three stages: pre-listening, the listening task, and post-listening.

This activity should establish the purpose of the listening activity and activate the schemata by encouraging the learners to think about and discuss what they already know about the content of the listening text. This activity can also provide the background needed for them to understand the text, and it can focus attention on what to listen for.

The task should involve the listener in getting information and in immediately doing something with it.

This activity should help the listener to evaluate success in carrying out the task and to integrate listening with the other language skills. The teacher should encourage practice outside of the classroom whenever possible.

prelistening; describe task; listen and react; post listening to test comprehension - correct errors; then they repeat exerecise as producer rather than receiver.

Ask the learners questions about what happens at the weekly meetings. Ask specifically about schedule changes. Show any form or the weekly calendar. Discuss its use and demonstrate how to fill it out if necessary.

Tell the learners they will be listening to a tape of a meeting. On the form/calendar they are to write down the schedule they hear. Demonstrate.

Play the tape while they fill out the form.

Ask the learners how they thought they did. Was it easy or difficult? Why? They may listen again if they want to. Have them compare their forms with a partner or check the information by filling a form out as a whole class.

Then have the learner be the boss and write a script with schedule changes. Have them practice in pairs or small groups giving and recording schedule changes.

The listener: 1. determines a reason for listening; 2. takes the raw speech and deposits an image of it in short-term memory; 3. attempts to organize the information by identifying the type of speech event (conversation, lecture, radio ad) and the function of the message (persuade, inform, request); 4. predicts information expected to be included in the message; 5. recalls background information (schemata) to help interpret the message; 6. assigns a meaning to the message; 7. checks that the message has been understood; 8. determines the information to be held in long-term memory; 9. deletes the original form of the message that had been received into short-term memory (Brown 1994; Dunkel, 1986)

1. Doing: the listener responds physically such as in Total PhysicalResponse (TPR);

2. Choosing: the listener selects from alternatives such as pictures, objects, texts, or actions;

3. Transferring: the listener transforms the message such as drawing a route on map, or filling in a chart;

4. Answering: the listener answers questions about the text;

5. Condensing: the listener takes notes or makes an outline;

6. Extending: the listener goes beyond the text by continuing the story or solving a problem;

7. Duplicating: the listener simply repeats or translates the message;

8. Modeling: the listener performs a similar task, e.g. gives instructions to a coworker after listening to a model or;

9. Conversing: the listener is an active participant in a face-to-face conversation.

Response types: doing; choosing; transferring; answering; condensing; extending; duplicating; modeling; conversing. Process Steps: 1-purpose/reason; 2-deposit in short mem; 3-organize; 4-predict; 5-recall any prior knowledge; 6-assign meaning; 7-comprehension check; 8-decide to remember (deposit in long term)or not; 9-delete short mem

develop bottom-up skills as learners listen to series of sentence patterns with rising and falling intonation and check column 1 (rising) or column 2 (falling) according to the pattern heard; (Peterson, 1991). OR the top-down skill of getting the gist of the message, as learners hear sentences describing a work task and select the appropriate picture (Peterson, 1991).

For example, in a unit on Problem Solving on the Job, learners might ask questions about where and to whom coworkers go for help when they have a problem with a piece of equipment or with another worker or with understanding internal memos. (See Nunan and Miller (1995) and Rost (1991) for descriptions of listening tasks.)

is a challenge that demands both the teacher's and the learner's attention because of the critical role that listening plays, not only in communication, but also in the acquisition of language.

select or create listening texts and activities that meet the needs of the their adult ESL learners.

weave these listening activities into the curriculum to create a balance that mirrors the real-world integration of listening with speaking, reading, and writing.

If you want to see evidence of this try to program a robot or write a computer program using high level human-like language. Your appreciation for the sophisticated inference powers and use of prior knowledge by humans will be magnified a gazillion fold. Things that we do without thinking have taken years to communicate to machines.

some remedial information or and or prior knowledge activation must be provided by the communicator to ensure full communication. The least we can do as language teachers, it would seem to me, is to ensure that L2s have a preview of the topic and the vocabulary, and possibility even an activity that relates the topic to things they are familiar with in their own language or age group community.

Thus, they do not give readers detailed background information regarding their materials. In other words, expository texts require readers to infer content. Therefore, these types of texts have low cohesion, which means that they have less explicit explanations. Readers who do not already know the subject in general have a hard time understanding the concepts.

The value of real language is obvious - it is what an L2 needs to use to communicate with L1s most effectively. The problem, it seems to me, is its availability; even though its all around us, especially on the internet, instances of natural language have to be organized into a lesson that can be presented in a prescribed time period. With graded text you get researched, tried and true materiel aimed at a particular language element. It also carries evaluative historical data to measure success. I believe both are necessary to develop fluency.

Authentic materials present students with natural, real everyday language, just as it appears in L2 communities. "The main disadvantage of these materials of course, is that sometimes they are not teacher-friendly, and you may need to spend several hours reading or watching videos until you finally find what you need in order to use in your class." (Follopio - (http://www.eslbase.com/articles/authentic-materials.asp) )

Graded texts allow a teacher to focus on a particular language element. All of the conversation will contain instances of the same element which will enable learners to practice, repeat, and eventually make inferences on how the element is used.