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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Sodium-potassium pumps transport Na (inside/outside) the cell, and K to the (inside/outside)
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Na outside
K Inside |
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Cell membrane is more permeable to K/Na?
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K
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K moves faster (outward/inward) than Na moves (inward/outward)
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K moves faster OUTWARD than Na moves INWARD.
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Resting Potential of a cell.
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-60 - -80 mV
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Where do action potentials occur
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Muscle and Nerve Cells
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How many impulses (action potentials) can occur in one second per nerve?
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1000
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Sequence of events of an action potential...
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1. Stimulation
2. Sodium Channels open 3. Na moves in, making cell LESS NEGATIVE. 4. Threshold reached; voltage-gated sodium channels open. 5. Depolarization happens 6. Reverse polarization 7. Stimulation of adjacent regions 8. Sodium channels begin to close; potassium channels begin to open (voltage-gated potassium channels open) 9. Repolarization 10. Na pumped out; K pumped back in. |
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What is the threshold level?
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-55 mV
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What is the absolute refractory period?
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The period from the initiation of the action potential back to threshold level. No other action potential can take place until the cell becomes more negative and goes below the threshold level.
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What is Orthodromic Conduction?
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Conduction that normally happens where impulses move in one direction.
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What is antidromic conduction.
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Backward propagation. Can only happen in a lab setting.
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What does Tetrodotoxin (TTX) do?
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Blocks Na pores.
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What does Saxitoxin do?
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Blocks Na pores.
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What does Batrachotoxin do?
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Causes Na channels to open and stay open much longer than usual.
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What type of conduction does not involve myelination?
How fast can the rate be? |
Continuous Conduction
1 m/sec |
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What type of conduction involves myelinated neurons?
How fast can the rate be? |
Saltatory Conduction
100 m/sec |
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Schwann cells are located where?
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They make up the myelin sheath of neurons in the PNS.
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Oligodendroglia cells are located where?
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They make up the myelin sheath of neurons in the CNS.
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What is MS?
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An autoimmune disease in which the body's natural defense attacks the myelin in the CNS.
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What are the symptoms of MS?
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- disturbances in vision
- disturbances in speech - numbness - fatigue - loss of coordination - uncontrollable tremors - memory problems - paralysis |
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How can MS be treated?
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ACTH, exercise, physical therapy
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What is Tay-Sachs disease?
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A disease prevalent among Jewish people, inherited - myelin sheaths are destroyed by excessive accumulation of lipids.
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Local anesthetics?
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Cocaine, lidocaine
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What do local anesthetics do?
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They block Na channels
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What are the two types of synapses?
Which is the main type in humans? |
Electrical and Chemical.
Chemical |
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What are the two most common neurotransmitters?
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Acetylcholine (Ach)
Norepinephrine (norepi) |
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What is the synaptic cleft?
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the microscopic space between the two neurons
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What is the postsynaptic membrane?
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The surface of the postsynaptic neuron that contains receptors for the neurotransmitters.
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What are the two most common neurotransmitters?
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Acetylcholine (Ach)
Norepinephrine (norepi) |
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What are the events of a chemical synapse?
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1. Impulse reaches axon terminal
2. Calcium enters presynaptic neuron causing release of neurotransmitters 3. Neurotransmitters diffuse across cleft and are detected by receptors 4. Postsynaptic membrane stimulated or inhibited 5. Neurotransmitters either diffuse out of cleft or are metabolized. |
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What is the enzyme that metabolizes Ach?
What is another name for it? |
Acetylcholinesterase
cholinesterase |
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What is the enzyme that metabolizes norepinephrine?
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Monoamine oxidase
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What is synaptic delay?
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the time it takes to release the neurotransmitter, for it to diffuse, and to activate postsynaptic membrane
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What is synaptic fatigue?
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When the neurotransmitter runs out.
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Why does conduction occur in only one direction?
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Because neurotransmitters are only stored on one side of the synapse.
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Does the speed of impulse increase or decrease with increase in diameter or an axon?
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increase
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In what ways can drugs affect synaptic transmission?
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Alter:
- synthesis of neurotrans - release of neurotrans - binding of neurotrans - destruction of neurotrans |
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What causes Parkinson's?
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lack of neurotransmitter (dopamine)
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What causes Myasthenia Gravis?
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Blocking of neurotrans receptors
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What causes Botulism?
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Inhibition of Ach release.
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What is the motor unit?
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A single motor neuron and the muscle fibers it innervates.
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Can the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit vary?
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Yes
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How many muscle fibers in motor unit of hand and eye?
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3 to 6
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How many muscle fibers in motor unit of large muscles?
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up to 800!
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Between what is a Myoneural Junction?
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between a motor neuron and muscles
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What events happen at a myoneural junction?
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The same as a synapse...
1. action potential 2. calcium uptake; causes exocytosis of Ach 3. Ach diffuses, binds 4. Binding brings about opening of Na channels 5. Current flows throughout the muscle cell 6. Ach broken down by acetylcholinesterase AKA cholinesterase |
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Through what does current flow in a muscle cell?
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Through the T Tubules
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What are the three differences between a synapse and a myoneural junction?
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1. synapse is junction between two neurons; myo junction between neuron and muscle cell.
2. one to one transmission of AP at myo junction; at synapse may be EPSP's and IPSP's 3. myo junctions always excitatory; at synapse may be inhibitory (IPSP's) |
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Characteristics of smooth muscle...
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elongated
no striations involuntary control one nucleus |
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Where is smooth muscle located?
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walls of blood vessels
digest system ducts of repro glands ureters bladder skin |
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What are characteristics of cardiac muscle?
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cross-striated
one nucleus involuntary control intercalated disks |
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Where is cardiac muscle located?
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In the heart only
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What are characteristics of Skeletal Muscle?
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elongated
MULTINUCLEATED VOLUNTARY control cross-striated |
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Where are skeletal muscles located?
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most of the muscles of the body
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What do these terms mean in muscle terminology?
Cell Plasma membrane Cytoplasm ER |
Fiber
Sarcolemma Sarcoplasm Sarcoplasmic reticulum |
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Where is Ca stored in muscle?
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in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
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How many myofibrils are found in a muscle fiber?
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100s-1000s
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What is the hierarchy of muscle components?
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Muscle Fiber
Myofibrils Myofilaments -actin (thin); mysosin (thick) |
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What two proteins are associated with actin proteins?
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Troponin and Tropomyosin
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What are the dark bands of a sarcomere?
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A bands (anisotropic)
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What are the light bands of a sarcomere?
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I bands (isotropic)
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What does the I band contain?
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Only actin filaments
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What does the A band contain
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Both Actin and Myosin filaments
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What does the H zone contain?
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Only myosin (no myosin heads)
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What bisects the I bands?
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Z lines
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What defines the limits of a sarcomere?
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2 Z lines
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Do actin and myosin change length during contraction of muscle?
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NO
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Actin filaments are made up of what three major components?
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Actin
Tropomyosin thread Troponin ovals |
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What makes up the F-actin filament?
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G-actin molecules strung together in a double chain
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What covers the binding sites of tropomyosin?
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troponin
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What are the events in sequence of muscle contraction?
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1. Stimulation
2. AP causes release of Ca 3. Ca binds to troponin C - Causes tropomyosin to move to one side, exposing the actin binding sites. 4. Myosin cross bridges bind to actin. Power stroke occurs. 5. ATP binds to HMM; cross bridges detach; ATPase cleaves ATP to ADP and energy; re-cock head 6. Process occurs repeatedly 7. Ca pump located in the sarcoplasmic reticulum continually pumps Ca out of sarcoplasm and back into the terminal cisternae. |
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What are the three components of Troponin?
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1. Troponin I
2. Troponin T 3. Troponin C |
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What does Troponin I do?
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Binds to actin
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What does Troponin T do?
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Binds to tropomyosin
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What does Troponin C do?
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Binds Calcium (initiates contraction)
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What are the components of Myosin Filaments?
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myosin molecules
Light meromyosin (LMM) Heavy meromyosin (HMM) Cross bridges (heads) |
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From where is Ca released during contraction?
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Endoplasmic Reticulum (Sarcoplasmic reticulum)
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What is isometric contraction?
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When a muscle develops tension but does not shorten.
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What is isotonic contraction?
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A contraction in which the muscle shortens, while the load on the muscle remains constant.
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What is the latent period of a muscle contraction event?
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The time from actual stimulation until the contractions begins.
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Spacial summation?
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More motor units...
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A cramp happens when?
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When tetanus is occurring - no relaxation of the muscle because stimuli are being applied in a very rapid succession
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What are red muscle fibers?
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Slow twitch muscle fibers
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What are white muscle fibers?
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Fast-twitch muscle fibers
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What is the twitch duration of a red muscle fiber?
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100 msec
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What is the twitch duration of a white muscle fiber?
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7 msec
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What are the characteristics of "red" muscle fibers?
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small diameter
many mitochondria many capillaries small amounts of glycogen storage red because of high concentration of myoglobin |
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What are the characteristics of "white" muscle fibers?
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fatigue quickly
rapid, powerful contractions energy from glycolysis large fibers high storage of glycogen few mitochondria white because they contain little myoglobin |
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What are causes of muscle fatigue?
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ATP use exceeds ATP production
Lactic acid accumulation glycogen depletion - hypoglycemia inhibition of release of Ca from lateral sacs |
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True of False?
The sarcoplasmic reticulum of cardiac muscle is not as extensive as skeletal muscle. |
True
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What 2 things do intercalated disks provide?
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1. gap junctions that allow impulses to travel from one cell to another
2. DESMOSOMES that anchor one cell to another |
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Why is tetanus impossible in cardiac muscles?
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Because the absolute refractory period is so long.
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During contraction of cardiac muscle, permeability of K decreases (quickly/slowly) and of Ca increases (quickly/slowly).
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quickly
slowly |
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Do smooth muscles have sarcomeres?
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No, thus no striations
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What two things do smooth muscles lack?
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Striations
T-Tubule systems |
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True or False
In smooth muscle contraction is actin-regulated. |
False - in smooth muscle it is myosin-regulated
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In smooth muscle contraction Ca binds to what?
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Calmodulin
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Calmodulin binds to and activates what?
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Myosin kinase
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What does myosin kinase do?
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phosphorylates myosin
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Smooth muscles relax when?
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when Ca is removed and myosin is thus de-phosphorylated and can no longer interact with actin.
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What are the 4 steps in smooth muscle contraction?
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1. Ca binds to calmodulin
2. This complex activates myosin kinase 3. which phosphorylates myosin 4. which binds with actin so bridge cycle can begin |
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What are the six groups of NEUROTRANSMITTERS?
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1. Acetylcholine
2. Amino Acids 3. Amines 4. Polypeptides 5. Purines 6. Gases |
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What are the AMINO ACID NEUROTRANSMITTERS?
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Glutamate
GABA Glycine Aspartate Which two of these are INHIBITORY NEUROTRANSMITTERS? |
GABA Glycine |
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What are the AMINE NEUROTRANSMITTERS?
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Norepinephrine
Epinephrine Dopamine |
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What are the POLYPEPTIDE NEUROTRANSMITTERS?
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Substance P
Endorphins and Enkephalins ADH |
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What is the largest part of the brain?
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Cerebrum
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What percent of total brain mass does the cerebrum make up?
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80%
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What is the corpus callosum?
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The thick band that connects the two hemispheres of the brain
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How many axons are in the corpus callosum?
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300 million
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What are the folds between brain fissures?
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Gyri
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What are the lobes of the cerebrum?
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1. frontal
2. parietal 3. temporal 4. occipital |
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What is frontal lobe involved with?
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motor, elaborate thought, speaking
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What is parietal lobe involved with?
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senses, somesthetic (feeling, touch, pressure, heat, cold, pain), proprioception (body positions)
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What is the temporal lobe involved with?
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Hearing
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What is the occipital lobe involved with?
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visual input
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What is the outer portion of the cerebrum called?
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Cerebral Cortex
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Of what is the cerebral cortex made?
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Gray matter
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What are the four functions of the CEREBRUM?
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1. all conscious functions
2. interpretations of sensations 3. understanding language 4. intelligence, memory, emotional feelings |
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What are the four functions of the THALAMUS
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1. recognition of crude sensations of pain, temp, touch
2. feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness 3. production of complex reflex movements 4. it is a relay center - receives all sensory input, except for smell, then relays it to the sensory cortex |
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What are the four functions of the CEREBRUM?
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1. all conscious functions
2. interpretations of sensations 3. understanding language 4. intelligence, memory, emotional feelings |
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What are the five functions of the HYPOTHALAMUS?
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1. controls pituitary hormones (thyroid, growth, repro, adrenal, milk)
2. Water balance (ADH) 3. Appetite and food intake 4. Body temp 5. Direct and indirect inputs to the autonomic nervous system |
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What are the functions of the CEREBELLUM?
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1. control muscle action
2. postural reflexes and equilibrium |
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What are the four functions of the THALAMUS
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1. recognition of crude sensations of pain, temp, touch
2. feelings of pleasantness and unpleasantness 3. production of complex reflex movements 4. it is a relay center - receives all sensory input, except for smell, then relays it to the sensory cortex |
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What are the functions of the MEDULA?
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1. Controls heart rate and blood pressure
2. Controls respiration 3. Reflexes of vomiting, coughing, hiccupping |
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What are the five functions of the HYPOTHALAMUS?
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1. controls pituitary hormones (thyroid, growth, repro, adrenal, milk)
2. Water balance (ADH) 3. Appetite and food intake 4. Body temp 5. Direct and indirect inputs to the autonomic nervous system |
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What are the functions of the PONS?
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1. center for the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th cranial nerves
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What are the functions of the CEREBELLUM?
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1. control muscle action
2. postural reflexes and equilibrium |
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What are the functions of the MIDBRAIN?
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1. Center for 3rd and 4th cranial nerves
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What are the functions of the MEDULA?
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1. Controls heart rate and blood pressure
2. Controls respiration 3. Reflexes of vomiting, coughing, hiccupping |
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What are the functions of the PONS?
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1. center for the 5th, 6th, 7th, and 8th cranial nerves
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What are the functions of the MIDBRAIN?
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1. Center for 3rd and 4th cranial nerves
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Which nerve controls 80% of all the parasympathetic neurons?
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Vagus Nerve
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How many spinal nerves?
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31 pairs
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How many cervical nerves?
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8
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How many thoracic nerves?
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12
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How many lumbar nerves?
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5
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How many sacral nerves?
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5
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how many coccygeal nerves?
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1
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Do you know all of the parts of the spinal chord?
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If you don't, you should...
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Gray matter in the spinal chord is formed by what?
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Neuron cell bodies
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With what is the central canal filled?
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CSF (cerebrospinal fluid)
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What forms the white matter of the spinal chord?
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Myelinated axons
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What are the three funiculi of the spinal chord?
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Anterior, posterior, lateral
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What are the ASCENDING TRACTS?
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Anterior spinothalamic
Lateral spinothalamic |
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What does the ANTERIOR SPINOTHALAMIC tract do?
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Conducts sensory impulses for crude touch and pressure
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What does the LATERAL SPINOTHALAMIC tract do?
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Conducts pain and temperature impulses
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What are the DESCENDING TRACTS?
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Anterior and Lateral Corticospinal
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What does the ANTERIOR CORTICOSPINAL tract do?
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Motor - coordinated movements
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What does the LATERAL CORTICOSPINAL tract do?
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Motor - coordinated movements
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What are characteristics of CSF?
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slightly alkaline
more: sodium and chloride than blood less: calcium, potassium, and glucose than blood |
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Where is CSF formed?
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Choroid plexuses in the ventricles
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What is the flow of CSF?
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Lateral ventricles
Interventricular Foramen Third ventricle Cerebral aqueduct Fourth ventricle Subarachnoid space Reabsorption at the Arachnoid villi "Later In Time Corey Found Some Rice" |
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What are the functions of CSF?
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1. cushions the brain
2. allows for exchange of nutrients and wastes 3. buoys the brain |
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What is hydrocephalus?
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Abnormal accumulation of CSF in the brain
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What is lumbar puncture?
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Withdrawal of CSF from the subarachnoid space
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By what is hydrocephalus caused?
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1. Aqueduct Stenosis (narrowing)
2. Secreting tumor (choroid plexus) |
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What is the mechanism of noncommunicating hydrocephalus?
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1. obstruction of CSF flow between ventricles
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What is the mechanism of COMMUNICATING HYDROCEPHALUS?
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impaired absorption of CSF
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When does REM cycle happen?
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While dreaming
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What are characteristics of NREM cycle?
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Respiration is low, deep, and regular
Decreased HR and BP; cerebral blood flow decreased; brain temp decreased Occasional changes in position of body |
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What are characteristics of REM cycle?
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Decreased muscle tone - except jaw
increased HR and BP heart attacks, angina increased brain temp muscle paralysis except jaw |
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What neurotransmitter controls the sympathetic division? Parasympathetic?
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Norepi
Ach |
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What four cranial nerves are controlled by the para division?
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3, 7, 9, and 10 (10=vagus)
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What is the anatomical origin of the two divisions?
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Sympathetic - thoracic and lumbar
Para - cranial and sacral |
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The adrenal medulla cells secrete Norepi and Epi in what ratio?
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80% epi; 20% norepi
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Where are nicotinic receptors located?
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At the ganglia of BOTH sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
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Where are muscarinic receptors found?
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On all effector organs innervated by the PARASYMPATHETIC division
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What is the major muscarinic antagonist?
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Atropine
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What are the major muscarinic stimulants?
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Acetylcholine, carbachol, methacholine, and bethanechol
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What are catecholamines
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epinephrine and norepi, or other similar-acting molecules
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What is the name of the important synthetic catecholamine?
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isoproterenol
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What will an alpha receptor stimulator do?
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vasoconstriction
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What will an alpha receptor blocker do?
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lowers high blood pressure
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What will Beta receptor stimulators do?
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stimulate heart, cause bronchodilation
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what will beta blockers do?
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slow heart rate
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What is the chemical released that stimulates pain receptors?
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Prostaglandins
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What natural chemicals suppress pain?
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Endorphins and enkephalins
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How do aspirin, acetaminophen and ibuprofen diminish pain?
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They block the production and release of prostaglandin
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