final exam

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning)

the process of learning associations

learn to associate two stimuli and thus to anticipate events

behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. (most research psychologists today agree with 1 but not with 2.

in classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as salivation when food is in the mouth)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally and automatically) triggers a response

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response

in classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) doesn't follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced

the reappearance of a (weakened) CR after a pause

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar response

in classical conditioning, the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that don't signal an unconditioned stimulus

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punischer

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal's rate of bar pressing or key pecking

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

in operant conditioning, any event that strenghtens the behavior it follows

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli such as food. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens a response.

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (negative reinforcement is not punishment!)

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer.

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.

in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals.

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

learning by observing others

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's action may enable imitation and empathy.

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

the presistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information

the processing of information into the memory system (for example by extracting meaning)

the retention of encoded information over time

the process of getting information out of memory storage

immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills and experiences

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information and of information retrieved from long-term memory

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time and frequency and of well-learned information such as word meanings

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

the encoding of picture images

the encoding of sound, especially the sound of words

the encoding of meaning, including the meaning of words.

mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing. Especially when combined with semantic encoding

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs atuomatically

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

an increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory.

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

the loss of memory

retention independent of conscious recollection (also called nondeclarative memory)

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and 'declare' (also called declarative memory)

a neural center that is located in the limbic system. helps process explicit memories for storage

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as one a fill-in-the-black test

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time

the activation (often unconsciously) of particular associations in memory

the eerie sense that "i've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings and memories

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (also called source misattribution). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior

a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system

neurons that carry incoming information form the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands

neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs

the brushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body

the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands

a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neutral impulses as the impulse hops from one nod to the next

a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon

the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse

the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse

a neurotransmitter's reabsortion by the sending neuron

learning and memory + is the messenger at every junciton between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle. When ACh is released to our muscle cell receptors, the muscle contracts

natural, opiatelike neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure

mimics its effects

blocks a function

the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems

the brain and spinal cord

the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system (CNS) to the rest of the body

bundled axons that form neural 'cables' connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands and sense organs

the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs (such as the heart). Its sympathetic division arouses, its parasympathetic division calms

the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy in stressful situations

the division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy

a simple, autonomic response to a sensory stimulus (such as the knee-jerk response)

the body's 'slow' chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream

chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues

a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress

the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.

tissue destruction. A brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.

a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task

a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. MRI scans show brain anatomy.

a technique for revealing bloodflow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. fMRI scans show brain activity.

the oldest part and central core of the brain. Beginning where the spinal cord swells at it enters the skull; the brainstem is responsible for automatic survival functions

the base of the brainstrem, controls heartbeat and breathing

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

helps coordinate movements

the brain's sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem. It directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

the 'little brain' at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance

neural system (including the hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives

two lima bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system. Linked to emotion

a neural structure lying below (hypo) the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland and is linked to emotion and reward

the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body's ultimate control and information-processing center

cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movement and in making plans and judgements

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position

portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information form the visual fields.

portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking and speaking

the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based in experience.

the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them

a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them