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171 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Light-dependent reactions are also known as what?
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Light reactions
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Light Reactions occur where?
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On the thylakoids
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What do light reactions actually do?
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Collect light energy and convert it to chemical energy
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This chemical energy is in what form?
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ATP & NADPH2, both are produced through the electron transport chain
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What are two other names light-independent reactions known as?
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Calvin Cycle or the Calvin-Benson Cycle
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Light-Independent Reactions occur where?
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In the stroma
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Light-independent reactions are mediated... by what, and why?
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By enzymes, because they are sensitive to pH and temperature
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Light-independent reactions use energy from what sources to reduce CO2 and sugar?
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ATP & NADPH2
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What does "reduce" mean in this case?
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Add hydrogens
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What is a carbon fixation?
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COnverting molecule from a non-usable to usable form, CO2 to C6H12O6, also converting inorganic to organic form.
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What do pigments do?
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Absorb light and actually show what is reflected (in a leaf, the color green is reflected)
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Pigments are embedded where?
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In the thylakoids
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What do accessory pigments do?
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Extend usable wavelengths of light
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What color is a carotenoid?
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Orange-ish
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What color is a xanthophyll?
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Yellow-ish
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What is a photon?
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A packet of light
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What do photons act as?
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A wave & particle
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Energy in photons need to go somewhere... where do they go?
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They are dissapated as heat, re-emitted as light (fluorescence), and captured and chemical bond.
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What do light reactions convert to?
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Chemical energy
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Where does the chiosmotic gradient occur?
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Protons
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What are thylakoids used for?
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To produce ATP
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The reaction center in photosystem II is what?
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P680
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P680 means what?
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Pigments and proteins
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What are antenna?
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Accessory pigments
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What happens in anntennae?
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Light bounces two electrons out of the reaction center
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What happens to these two electrons?
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They are transferred to chlorophyll which bounces two electrons out of chlorophyll.
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And what happens to THOSE two electrons?
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They are boosted to a higher energy state
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What does lysis mean?
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Breakdown of the cell caused by damage to the plasma membrane
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When lysis occurs in the cell, what is released?
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O2, electrons, protons
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What are these released protons used for?
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Establishment of the chiosmotic gradient.
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What happens after lysis occurs?
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2 electrons are passed through the electron transport chain.
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The chemisomotic gradient across thylakoids is used to make what?
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ATP
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At this point, there is a high concentration of what in the lumen of the thylakoids?
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Protons
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What happens to the two electrons?
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They are used to fill the electron hold in photosystem I
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Hydrogens end up reducing what?
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NADP
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The reaction center in photosystem I is what?
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P700
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P700 means what?
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Protons and pigments
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How many turns of the Calvin Cycle are required for glucose?
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6 turns
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Calvin Cycle is heavily dependent on what?
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Enzymes
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What does the Calvin Cycle do?
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Regenerates starting material
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What does the Calvin Cycle use?
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ATP & NADPH2
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Where does the Calvin Cycle occur?
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In the stroma of the chloroplasts
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Who was Gregor Mendel?
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A monk in the 1800's who worked out the patterns of inheritence.
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What did Mendel use?
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The garden pea
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Were his experiments accurate?
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Yes
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What did Mendel's work do?
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Provided reasonable explanation of how natural selection operates.
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What is the idea of natural selection?
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If there is an inheritable trait that provides an advantage allows offspring of that individual will be more likely to survive another organism that did not have this trait.
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The environment allows an organism with advantageous traits to do what?
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Survive, reproduce, and pass traits to offspring.
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Mendel's work was buried... when was it rediscovered?
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In 1910 by Thomas Hunt Morgan
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What are Mendel's Laws?
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The Law of Segregation and the Laws of Independent Assortment
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What is the Law of Segregation?
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During meiosis, the two homologs of a pair seperate into different daughter nuclei; this occurs in anaphase I.
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The Laws of Independent Assortment claim what?
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Chromosomes sort independent of each other, patterns are established in metaphase I, and different types of all possible gametes by mixing up material (red) and potential (blue) chromosomes.
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The number of different gametes is 2N, where n...
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n = the number of heterozygous chromosomes
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What is a gene?
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A segment of DNA that codes for a characteristic
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What is an allele?
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Alternate forms of a gene
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What is dominance?
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One allele may overpower another
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What is recessiveness?
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Allele that is overpowered
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What is epistasis?
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Two alleles are expressed at once
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What is a phenotype?
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Physical appearance of the trait
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What is a genotype?
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Actual form of the gene (RR, Rr)
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What is a monohybrid cross?
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Mating dealing with one gene
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When doing a monohybrid cross, which gametes are dominant and which are recessive?
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Female gametes are dominant, male gametes are recessive
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How do you predict gamete type?
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Tree diagram
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How do you determine if an organism that expresses a dominant trait is homozygous or heterozygous?
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Cross them with a homozygous recessive
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What is a dihybrid cross?
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A cross with two characteristics.
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These two characteristics- are they linked?
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No, they are unlinked and on different chromosomes.
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The phenotypic ratio of a dihybrid cross is always what?
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9:3:3:1
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During what phase of interphase does DNA copy itself?
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S phase
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What is semi-conservative replication?
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Where the new DNA is a compliation of half old and half new DNA.
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Who officially discovered the structure DNA?
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Watson and Crick
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How did Rosaline Franklin and Wilkins contribute?
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They were X-ray crystallographers who found the regular repeating pattern in DNA.
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Who realized the significance of these patterns?
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Watson
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When did Watson and Crick publish their work?
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1954
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What is Chargaff's rule?
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A=T; C=G
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How many hydrogen bonds does A-T have?
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2 hydrogen bonds
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How many hydrogen bonds does G-C have?
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3 hydrogen bonds
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DNA is a double-stranded alpha helix. What does this mean?
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It means it is twisted to the right.
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What are the four requirements for DNA replication?
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DNA template, dATP, dTTP, dCTP, dGTP, DNA polymerase complex, and chemical energy.
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What is the DNA template?
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One strand acts as a pattern for a new strand (semi-conservative)
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What does dATP stand for?
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Adenison Triphosphate
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What does dTTP stand for?
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Thymine Triphosphate
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What does dCTP stand for?
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Cytosine Triphosphate
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What does dGTP stand for?
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Guanine Triphosphate
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dATP, dTTP, dCTP, & dGTP are present as a "pool" where in the cell?
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In the nucleus
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What is DNA polymerase complex?
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DNA is a macromolecule, so it is a polymer of nucleotides.
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Where is the chemical energy in DNA replication taken from?
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ATP, also all four nucleotide triphosphates break off one or more phosphate groups and release energy
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Replication takes place in two steps... what are they?
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DNA strands seperate locally and nucleotides are covalently added to the 3' end of the growing DNA molecule
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When the strand seperate locally, what happens to the DNA during this time?
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H bonds are broken between base pairs and DNA is melted (denatured)
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DNA, at this point, is threaded through a replication complex. A replication complex is also known as what?
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Polymerase complex
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Polymerase complex recognizes the origin of ___________ and binds it to ___.
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Replication, DNA
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"ori" means what?
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Specific sequence of bases on DNA
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What does DNA helicase do?
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It unwinds DNA locally and melts DNA
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What do single-stranded binding proteins do?
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Keeps DNA strands seperate
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What does RNA primase do?
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Makes a short fragment of RNA
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What is RNA primase referred to as?
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RNA Primer
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Why is RNA Primer needed?
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DNA polymerase can't start a DNA molecule (it can only elongate one) This actually starts the molecule.
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After RNA Primer does its job, what happens?
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DNA polymerase then adds nucleotides to the 3' end
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After DNA is all done making a new, local fragment, what happens?
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DNA polymerase proofreads new DNA strand
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How many errors are there before proofreading?
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One error in 10,000,000 bases
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How many errors are there after proofreading?
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One error in 10,000,000,000 bases
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DNA Polymerase replaces bad spots with what?
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The correct nucleotide
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What heals the damaged sugar phosphate bone?
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Ligase
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The opposite strand of DNA is synthesized in discontinuous fragments. What are these fragments called?
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Okazaki fragments
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How are these Okazaki fragments joined to the new DNA?
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By ligase
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How is the RNA Primer removed from the new DNA?
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The DNA editing function
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The 5' end of a new nucleotide attached to the __ end of an old nucleotide.
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3'
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What is transcription?
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DNA language is turned into RNA language
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DNA is a template for what?
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RNA synthesis
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The order of bases in DNA dictates what?
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The order of bases in RNA
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When do you use a Punnett Square?
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When you're crossing gametes
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When do you use a tree diagram?
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When you're making gametes
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Instead of Thymine, what is the RNA equivalent?
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Uracil
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When DNA unwinds and melts, what does it allow?
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It allows RNA polymerase to start making RNA
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How many strands of DNA are transcribed at a time?
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One
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How many base pairs are unwound at one time?
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About 20
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DNA does/does not contain punctuation
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It does
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RNA polymerase binds where?
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The initiation site
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The beginning sequence of punctuation is how many nucleotides?
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Three
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What is always the first amino acid?
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Methionine
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What are the three bases that code for methionine in RNA?
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AUG
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What are the three bases that code ofr methionine in DNA?
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TAC
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In transcription, the RNA molecule elongates. How is this process done?
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DNA unwinds in front of RNA polymerase, RNA nucleotides are added to the 3' end of growing RNA, and DNA rewinds behind RNA polymerase.
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What occurs during termination?
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Stop sequence in DNA, RNA polymerase stops, RNA polymerase falls off the DNA, and the newly made RNA is released.
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What are the five RNA characteristics?
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Anti-parallel and complimentary to DNA template, Uracil replaced thymine, single-stranded, Pre-RNA is processed into three types, and RNA is transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
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TGGCAGCTTT
Find the anti-parallel and complimentary RNA sequence. |
UCCGACGUUU
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In the "pool" of nucleotides in the nucleus , what is also present besides dATP, dTTP, dCTP, & dGTP?
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UTP
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What are the three RNA types?
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tRNA, mRNA, and rRNA
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What does tRNA stand for?
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Transfer RNA
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What does mRNA stand for?
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Messenger RNA
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What does rRNA stand for?
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Ribosomal RNA
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What does mRNA do?
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Codes for amino acid sequence
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How many tRNA's are there for each amino acid?
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Just one
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What does tRNA do?
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Binds to an amino acid, carries it to the ribosome, & binds to complimentary base pairing.
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What shape is tRNA?
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Clover leaf
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rRNA is part of what?
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The ribosome (duh!)
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Ribozymes act as what?
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Enzymes
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How is RNA transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm?
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Through nuclear pores
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When does transcription occur?
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All the time except during M phase when chromosomes are condensed and RNA cannot be transcribed
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What is translation?
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The term for the process of turning the RNA code into a protein
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Where does translation occur?
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In the cytoplasm on ribosomes
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Ribosomes are synthesized into two subunits. What are they?
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Large and small
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How does the ribosome subunit exit the nucleus?
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Through nuclear pores
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Do these subunits combine or remain seperate?
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Remain seperate
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What binds to the small subuniits of ribosome?
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mRNA
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What, in turn, binds to the mRNA?
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Large subunits
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tRNA is _________.
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Specific
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How is the clover-leaf shape of tRNA stabalized?
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By internal base pairing
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One end of the clover-leaf shape of tRNA binds to what?
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The amino acid
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What does the other end of tRNA bind to?
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mRNA
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What happens at the aminoacyl site?
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The amino acid binds there
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What does aminoacyl transferase do?
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Catalyzes amino acid binding
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The binding of the amino acid to the aminoacyl site requires...
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Energy
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After all this happens, the tRNA is referred to as "_______"
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"charged"
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What initiates translation?
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Codons in mRNA, also methionine
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The anticodon of tRNA binds to the what in mRNA and brings its amino acid?
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Codon
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After translation has been primarily initiated, what happens?
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Elongation occurs
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During elongation, each mRNA codon binds to the next what?
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tRNA anticodon
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tRNA, when it is in the process of binding and elongation, has what attached to it?
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An amino acid
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Each amino acid, when they're next to each other on their own respective tRNA molecules, they form what kind of bond?
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A polypeptide bond
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How do these amino acids form a polypeptide bond?
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It is catalyzed by ribozyme
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The first tRNA (methionine) does what at this point?
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Lets go of the ribosome and amino acid
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When it lets go, where does the ribosome complex move?
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To the next codon
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After it's all done doing this b.s., termination occurs. What happens during termination?
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A signal in mRNA says "stop", release factors bind, tRNA falls off, completed protein is released, and the ribosome falls apart.
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During protein processing, what is cut off?
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Methionine
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Methionine isn't absolutely necessary. Why?
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It's just a starter protein; it's not needed for processing
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The signal sequence at the start of protein processing does what?
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Directs the protein to cellular digestion.
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Proteins that lack a signal sequence do what?
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Stay in the cytoplasm
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Modifications during protein processing include what three modifications?
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Cleavage, glycolsylation, and phosphorylation
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What does "glycolsylation" mean?
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"add sugar"
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During glycolsylation, what do you end up with?
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Glycoproteins
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What does "phosphorylation" mean?
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"Add phosphate"
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