human development and behavior 2

behavioral and cognitive-behavioral techniques in which the client is trained to evaluate and modify his or her own behaviors. self-reinforcement, self-punishment, and stimulus controls are classified as self-control procedures.

the first stage in piaget's model of cognitive development; spans the first two years of life. during this stage, knowledge is acquired through the senses and motor behaviors. the end of this stage is marked by the emergence of symbolic thought and object permanence.

the increase in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others. most likely to occur when the task is simple or well-learned.

learning to respond only in the presence of certain stimuli (i.e., the presence of the original CS).

the ability to use words, actions, and other symbols to represent objects and experiences. emerges at the end of piaget's sensorimotor stage of development. also referred to as "symbolic capacity."

an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying amount of time (with the average time interval being predetermined). associated with a smooth rate of responding.

part of the limbic system of the brain involved in the control of emotional activities, including the mediation of defensive-aggressive behaviors.

according to piaget, the process of incorporating new objects, information, and experiences into existing cognitive structures or schemes.

a predisposition to act in a particular way toward an attitude object. according to fishbein, behavioral intentions consist of two components: a personal component (the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior) and a social component (the person's belief's about what other people think he or she should do.

the tendency of people to not intervene in emergency situations when others are present. bystander apathy has been attributed to three factors: social comparison, evaluation apprehension, and diffusion of responsibility.

a type of learning in which a neutral (conditioned) stimulus is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus alone eventually elicits the response that is naturally produced by the unconditioned stimulus. in pavlov's original studies, the meat powder was the unconditioned stimulus and a tone was the conditioned stimulus. as the result of pairing the tone with the meat powder, the tone eventually elicited salivation.

the third stage in piaget's model of cognitive development; spans ages 7 to 11 years. during this stage, children acquire logical operations and use logic to reason about concrete events or situations. children at this stage can "conserve."

conformity to group norms is highest when the task is ambiguous or complex, when group consensus is high, and when members have participated in setting the norms. moreover, people high in authoritarianism and rigidity and who have low self-esteem are more likely to conform to group norms.

according to kohlberg, the stage of moral development in which moral judgments are based on adherence to authority. includes the "good boy/good girl" and "law and order" stages. is characteristic of most adolescents and adults.

according to j. wallerstein, the deterioration in the relationships between children and their parents following divorce. following divorce, mothers and fathers spend less time with their children, are less sensitive to their children, have less trouble separating their needs from the needs of the children, and are inconsistent but more restrictive and demanding, in terms of control and punishment.

prolonged separation between a child and primary caregiver has the least negative impact when it occurs prior to three months of age and the worst consequences when it occurs after nine months (up to about two or three years of age).

an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the organism is reinforced for each predetermined interval of time in which it makes at least one response. associated with a "scallop" on the cumulative recording of the subject's responses.

the anterior portion of the cerebral hemispheres of the brain. contains the motor area and prefrontal association cortex and is involved in initiative, planning ability, social empathy, and tact. damage to the frontal lobe can cause dysarthria (difficult, poorly articulated speech), loss of fine movement or strength, Broca's aphasia, a reduction in planning and problem-solving ability, and personality changes.

the theory of attraction which proposes that liking is related to the pattern rather than the amount of rewards. according to the gain-loss theory, people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increased liking for them and tend to be least attracted to individuals who show decreased liking for them.

a mode of group thinking in which group members' desires for unanimity and cohesiveness which override their ability to realistically appraise or determine alternative courses of action. can be alleviated by encouraging dissent or having someone play devil's advocate.

a cluster of nuclei in the diencephalon (a part of the brain) that controls the autonomic nervous system and endocrine glands, mediates basic drives, and regulates emotional expression.

in operant conditioning, any pattern of reinforcement that is not continuous. includes the fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interest, and variable ratio schedules. associated with greater resistance to extinction than a continuous schedule.

the left (dominant) hemisphere of the brain tends to be larger than the right hemisphere, and it dominates verbal activities (spontaneous speaking and writing, word recognition, memory for words and numbers); analytical, logical thought; and negative emotional states.

rehearsal, elaboration, organization, and other memory strategies are not used regularly by children until age 10, which helps explain the problems younger children exhibit on measures of long-term memory.

the approach to development that attributes physical, mental, and behavioral changes to nature (inheritance). Chomsky's view of language as attributable to an innate "language acquisition device" is a nativist theory.

a means of improving problem-solving and decision-making by groups that de-emphasizes direct face-to-face contact by group members. involves individual brainstorming, followed by group discussion and a "secret ballot."

Bandura's theory states that behaviors can be acquired simply by observing someone else (a model) perform those behaviors, i.e., that the acquisition of behavior is due largely to social influences and that learning is cognitively mediated and involves four processes: attention, retention, production, and motivation.

Piaget's theory of cognitive development, which proposes that knowledge is actively constructed by the individual from elements provided by both maturation and experience. describes cognitive development as involving four universal and invariant stages: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. also views adaptation to the environment as reflecting a combination of assimilation and accomodation.

basic tendencies in parenting. Baumrind distinguishes between four styles that reflect various combinations of warmth and control: authoritarian, authoritative, indulgent-permissive, and indulgent-uninvolved. in general, parental warmth mixed with moderate control (an authoritative style) is associated with the best outcomes. these include greater self-confidence and self-reliance, achievement-orientation, and social responsibility.

for Kohlberg, the final level of moral development. at this level, moral judgments are independent of personal consequences and social convention and are based on social contracts, democratically-determined laws, and universal principles. many adults do not reach this stage of moral development.

a stimulus that has reinforcing value without conditioning (learning). Examples include food and water.

Kubler-Ross developed a five-stage model of adjustment to the idea of one's own death. The stages, in order, are denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.

in operant conditioning, response generalization occurs when a discriminative stimulus not only increases a particular response but also similar ones.

the behavior expected of an individual based on his or her position or status. individuals usually adopt more than one role; e.g., mother/father, daughter/son, and worker.

the assumption that individuals behave in accordance with the expectations set by their family, by society, etc.

the notion that having an expectation about an event will cause it to occur.

a normal fear from response exhibited by a young child when he or she is separated from a mother or other primary caretaker. begins at about six to eight months, increases in intensity at about 14 to 18 months, and thereafter declines.

the decrease in learning and performance that occurs in the presence of others. most likely to occur when the task is new or complex.

in operant and classical conditioning, responding with a particular response to similar stimuli; e.g., in classical conditioning, responding to stimuli similar to the CS with the CR.

the division of the autonomic nervous system involved in the mediation of flight or fight (emergency) reactions. activation of the sympathetic division produces increased heart rate, pupil dilation, increased blood sugar, and inhibition of the digestive processes.

an intermittent reinforcement schedule in which the reinforcer is applied after a varying number of responses (with the average number of responses being predetermined). associated with a high, stable rate of responding and the greatest to extinction.