lang log pers

identified by examining the form or structure of the argument. only found in deductive arguments.

all A are B
all C are B
Therefor all A are C

detected by examining the content of the argument.

ex:The brooklyn bridge is made of atoms
atoms are invisible
brooklyn bridge is invisible

connection between premises and conclusion is emotional

arguer poses a conclusion saying some harm will come to other person if they don't accept the conclusion.

ie: bullys taking lunch money or getting kicked in shin

arguer supports his conclusion by evoking pity from the reader.

ie: my family will die if you make me pay my taxes.

arguer uses basic human desires to to get the reader to accept the conclusion.
-bandwagon, appeal to vanity, appeal to snobbery

direct: arouses mob mentality
indirect: appeals to reader's desire for security, love, respect

2 arguers
one advances a certain argument.
the other responds by directing his attention not to the argument but to the first arguer himself.

abusive: verbally abuses other arguer
circumstantial: presents other arguer as predisposed to argue this way

a general rule is applied to a specific case it was not intended to cover.
misapplied.

arguer distorts an opponents argument for the purpose of attacking it, demolishes the distorted argument, then concludes the opponents real argument has been demolished.

form of irrelevance
premises support one particular conclusion, but then a different conclusion often vaguely related to the correct conclusion.

ie: crimes of theft and robbery have been increasing at an alarming rate lately. The conclusion is obvious: we must reinstate the death penalty immediately.

diverts attention of the reader by changing the subject to a different but subtly related one.

connection between premises and conclusion is not strong enough to support the conclusion

argument from authority and occurs when the cited authority lacks credibility

the premises state nothing has been proved one way or another and the conclusion then makes a definite assertion.

ie: people have been trying to disprove claimes of astrology and no one has succeeded. Therefore we must conclude that the claims of astrology are true.

argument that draws a conclusion about all members of a group from evidence that pertains to a selected sample

ie: on three separate occasions i drank a bottle of beer and it was flat. probably i would find every bottle of beer flat.

the link between premises and conclusion depends on some imagined casual connection that doesn't exist.
ie: the quality of education in our grade schools has been declining for years. Clearly our teachers arent doing their job these days.

the conclusion of an argument rests on an alleged chain reaction and there is no sufficient reason to think the chain reaction will actually take place.

analogy is not strong enough to support the conclusion that is drawn.

A has a, b, c, and z
B has a , b , and c
therefore B has z also.
ie: Harper's new car is bright blue, has leather upholstery, and gets excellent gas mileage. Crowley's new car is also bright blue and has leather upholstery. therefore it probably gets good gas mileage.

premises presume what they purport to prove.

includes: begging the question, complex question, false dichotomy, and suppressed evidence

some form of ambiguity in either the premises or conclusion.

grammatically analogous to other arguments that are good in every respect

inadequate premises proved adequate support for the conclusion by leaving out a fake key premises.
actual source of support for the conclusion is not apparent.

ie: murder is wrong therefore abortion is wrong

2 or more questions are asked in a single question and a single answer is given for both.

ie: have you stopped cheating on exams.
where did you hide the marijuana?

disjunctive (either, or) premises present tow unlikely alternatives as if they were the only ones available.
the arguer then eliminates the undesirable alternative leaving the desirable one for the conclusion.

ie: either you allow me to go to the concert or ill be miserable and i know you dont want me to be miserable so you better let me go to the concert.

premises ignore a certain piece of evidence that outweighs presented evidence.

ie:most dogs are friendly and dont pose a threat to people who try to pet them. therefore it is safe to pet this small dog coming up to us.

conclusion of an argument depends on the fact that a word or phrase is used in two differnt senses in the argument.

ie: a mouse is an animal. Therefore a large mouse is a large animal

arguer misinterprets an ambiguous statement then draws a conclusion based on this faulty interpretation

ie:the tour said that standing in greenwich village you can see the empire state building. therefore the empire state building must be in greenwich village.

conclusion of an argument depends on the erroneous transference of an attribute from the parts of something onto the whole.

EXACT REVERSE OF COMPOSITION

from whole to parts.

ie: the jigsaw puzzle, when assembled is a circular shape. therefore all of the pieces are circular shapes.

terminology that conveys meaning

terminology that evokes or expresses meaning

claim that something good, bad, or right, wrong, than some other thing.

boderline cases in which it is impossible to tell if the expression applies or doesnt apply.

more than one clearly distinct meaning in the context.

disputes over meaning of language

disputes over disagreements about facts

qualities for the term

ie: cat= furry, having four legs, moving a certain way

members of the class

ie: cat= leapards, lynx, all cats of the universe

refers to subtle nuances of a word

refers to the word's direct and specific meaning

attributes that the term commonly calls forth in mind

the class has no members.
one time it had existing entities, but today there are non

each term in the series (except the first) connotes more attributes than the one before it.

each term connotes less than the one before it.

assings a meaning to a word for the first time.
ie:coining a new word

meaning of a word already has in a language

ie: dictionary definition

reduces the vagueness of the word.

assings a meaning to a word by suggesting a theory that gives certain characterization to the entities that the term denotes.

makes favorable or unfavorable attitude toward what is denoted by the definition. this is done by assigning an emotionally charged meaning to word.

ie: abortion means the ruthless murdering innocent human beings

assigns a meaning to word by indicating the member so fthe class that the definition denotes.

definition is the meaning of pointing.
ie: chair means this and this -- as you point to several chairs

assigns a meaning to a word by naming the members of the class the term denotes

ie: actress means a person such as Nicole Kidman, or Natalie Portman

assigns a meaning to a term by naming the members of the class the term denotes.

ie: tree means oak, pine, elm, spruce, maple

assigns meaning to a word by indicating the qualities or attributes

definition is a single word that connotes the same attributes as the defined.

ie: physician means doctor
intentional means willful

assigns meaning to a word by disclosing the word's ancestry in both its own language and in other languages

ie: derives from and such

assigns a meaning to a word by specifying certain experimental procedures that determine whether or not the word applies to a certain thing

ie: one substance is hard than another if and only iff one scratches the other when the two are rubbed together.

identifies a genus term adn one or more difference words that, when combined, convey the meaning of the term being defined.
genus means a larger class species means a subclass of genus

ie: species: ice
means
difference: frozen
genus: water
or
species: daughter means
difference: female
genus: offspring

1. conform to the standards of proper grammar
2. convey the essential meaning of the word being defined
3. should be neither too broad nor too narrow
4. avoid circularity
5. should nto be negative when it can be affirmative
6. avoid figurative, obscure, vague, and ambiguous language
7. avoid affective terminology
8. indicate the context to which the defined pertains

since, because, for, seeing that, given that, as, in that

therefore, thus, as a result, accordingly, so, entails that

reasoning process expressed my an argument

information content of a statement

arguments are good or bad and elements are terms

involves concepts as possibility, necessity, belief, and doubt.

1st condition for a passage to purport to prove something

2nd condition for a passage to purport to prove something

if then statement

**the if statement is the ANTECEDENT
**the then statement is the CONSEQUENT

the occurrence of A is all that is needed for the occurrence of B

ie: being a dog is a sufficient condition for being an animal

If A cannot occur without the occurrence of B

ie: being an animal is a necessary condition for being a dog

impossible for the conclusion to be false given the premises are true

ie: the meerkat is a meber of the mongoose family
all members of the mongoose family are carnivores
therefore it necessarily follows that the meerkat is a carnivore

improbably the the conclusion is false given the premises are true

ie: the meerkat is closely related to the suricat
the suricat thrives on beetle larvae
therefore, probably the meerkat thrives on larvae

conclusion depends on purely arithmetic or geometric measurement

conclusion depends merely on the definition of some word

statements begin with 'all' 'no' or 'some'

conditional statement for one or both premises

either or statement

disjunctive statement

from knowledge of the past to make a claim about the future

depends on the existence of a similarity between two things

knowledge of a selected sample to some claim about the whole group

concludes something is true because the expert has said that it is

a sign to a claim about the thing that the sign symbolizes

knowledge of a cause to a claim about an effect

makes a claim about one or more particular members of a class

makes a claim about all members of the class

impossible for conclusion to be false given the premises are true

it is possible for the conclusion to be false given the premises are true

valid and has all true premesis

invalid, has one or more false premises, or both

improbably the conclusion is false given the premises are true

conclusion does not follow probably from the premises even though it is claimed to

strong and has all true premises

weak, has one or more false premises or both