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148 Cards in this Set
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What are the 2 main functions of the outer ear?
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1. Resonant at 3kHz
2. Important for spectral shaping: localization especially of vertical directions |
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What is the range of frequencies we can hear?
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20-20,000 Hz
What about in dB? |
0-120 dB |
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At what range is our speech? (dB)?
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40-60dB
painful? |
100 dB |
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We are most sensitive to which frequencies in which we can detectt overtone?
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1-3 kHz
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What are the 2 main functions of the middle ear?
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1. Impedance transformation
2. Protecction from loud sounds |
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How is the middle ear able to take part in impedance transformation?
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due to ration of large tympanic membrabe to small oval window and somewhat due to lever action of ossicles
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What kind of "liquid" is found in the middle ear and inner ear?
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Middle ear: perilymph
Inner ear: endolymph What is their ionic constitution? |
Perilymph: Na+ rich (like interstitial fluid) Endonlymph in inner eear: K+ rich |
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How does the middle ear carry out its function of protection?
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Via the
-Tensor tympani CN V -Stapedius CN VII |
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What is the mian function of the inner ear?
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Transduction
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If the stereocilia of the inner ear bend toward their kinocilium what happens?
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kinocilium is apex
They will depolarize and allow the entry of K+ rich endolymph |
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Describe width, stiffness and frequency near the oval window
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Closest to the oval window is the most narrow part of the BASILAR membrane that dects high frequency sounds. It is stiff.
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What is the HELICOTREMA? What is going on there?
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The helictrema is the apex of the basilar membrane.
It is wide, flexible and corresponds tolow frequencies. |
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What 2 widths have an inverse relationship?
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The cocha goes from wide to narrow, while the basilar membrane goes from narrow to wide
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In what direction do oval and round windows deflect? why?
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They deflect in opposite directions because the round window is the "escape" for the pressures felt at the oval window
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What does frequency following refer to?
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Refers to the fact that for lower frequencies the hair cells will fire at the same frequency of sound that they are receiving.
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What does volley code refer to?
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Refers to the fact that there are frequencies of sound that are too high for stereocilia to follow, so they have a "code" where they fire every so often.
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Which hair cells are the important ones for hearing?
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IIIIIInner hair cells are IIIIImportant for hearing!
(there is only one row) |
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What are the afferent nerves?
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SPIRAL GANGLION AFFERENTS
where are they located? |
adjacent to the scala media |
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There are 3 chambers in the inner ear. What are they?
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Scala media
Sala vestibuli Scala tympani What are the scala vestibuli and scala tympani closest to? |
Scala Vestibuli -> oVal window Scala tympani -> roundwindow |
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What's important about the scala media?
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That's where actual hearing or sound transduction occurs
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What is responsible for the main efferent signals of the ear?
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the OUTER hair cells -> 3 rows
What is ther main function? (2) |
1. TONOTOPIC TUNING 2. Lateral inhibition |
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What do ototoxic drugs selectively damage?
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Outer hair cells
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Outer hair cells are said to have a motor because they change based on their polarization state.
What happens when they are depolarized? |
They SHORTEN when they are depolarized
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What is the pathway for hearing?
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Spiral ganglion, CN VIII, dorsal and ventral cochlear nuclei, superior Olivary nuclei, LATRAL LEMNISCUS, MGN, auditory cortex (Heschl's gyrus)
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Why is the super Olivary complex important?
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The superior Olivary complex receives input from both ears and it is the first place where cues are processed for sound localization
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What happens at the central nucleus of the inferior colliculus? 2
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Processing of
1. Sound pitch 2. Location |
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Wht are the other names for Heschls gyrus?
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A1, Brodmann's areas 41 and 42
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What is processed in the auditory cortex?
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1. Frequency modulation
2. Pitch sequences |
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Sound localization occurs at the olive. What specifically happens at the medial superior olive (MSO)?
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Medial superior olive will join the lateral lemniscus and is responsible for detecting INTERAURAL TIME DIFFERENCE
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What is the MSO best at detecting?
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MSO detects Interaural time difference, will best detect
Low frequency sounds and Transient sounds MSO receives input from which ear? |
MSO receives input from both ears |
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What does the Lateral Superior Olive detect?
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Interaural LEVEL difference
What does it best respond to? |
Responds best to high frequency sounds and tonic sounds. Note that it only receives information from ipsilateral ear |
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The Lateral Superior Olive, which functions in detecting Interaural level difference, works best above which frequency?
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It works best at frequencies above 2kHz
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Something to keep in mind about the Lateral superior olive, LLLL
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LLLateral superior olive, LLLevel difference, joins the LLLateral lemniscus
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The following contribute to the auditory efferent system
Auditory association cortex Primary auditory cortex Inferior colliculus Superior Olivary complex What do they become? |
They become the efferent olivo cochlear bundle, which in turn divides into:
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Lateral olivo cochlear bundle Middle olivo cochlear bundle |
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The lateral olivo cochlear bundle innervates
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The inner hair cells sparsely
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He medial olivo cochlear bundle innervates
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The outer hair cells densely
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How many neurons are in the middle ear reflex that goes to the stapedius and the tensor tympani muscles?
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There are three neurons. The interneurons of the three neuron arc are found where.
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They are found in the superior Olivary complex |
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The acoustic startle reflex starts with axons from the lateral lemniscus pathway going to
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Reticulospinal neurons that mediate a startle response to unexpected sounds
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In the auditory pathway there are many points for auditory decussation? Can you name the main four?
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1. Olivary nuclei
2. Trapezoid body 3. Inferior colliculi 4. Corpus callosum |
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It takes 0 msec for sound from ipsilateral side to first reach the MSO of left side. It takes .3 msec for the Contralateral side to first reach the MSO of the left side, and they coincide at .3 seconds. Where is the source of the sound?
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The sound is in the midline
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What part of the auditory pathway discriminates pitch?
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Inferior colliculus
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What part of the auditory pathway discriminates Interaural intensity difference discrimination?
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The medial superior olive MSO
Interaural intensity difference is the same thing as level difference |
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What is presbycusis?
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Loss of high frequency noises due to aging
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If you are looking at an audio gram and there is a divit in the middle, what should you suspect?
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You should suspect that there is partial nerve damage. This is often caused by tumors like acoustic neuromas.
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A calorie mismatch of 1% a day can lead to gaining how much weight during the year?
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2 1/2 lbs
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The hyoithakamus regulates satiation, satiety and hunger.
What is the definition of satiation? |
Satiation is the fullness during a meal, which regulates amount of food consumed
What is the definition of satiety? |
Satiety is the level of fullness AFTER a meal is consumed. |
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What are the four compounds that signal satiation from the stomach?
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The four compounds that signal satiation, or tell you that you are full are
CCK PYY GLP-1 Amylin |
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What does ghrehlin do?
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It is the only gut derived signal that INCREASES HUNGER
where is it found? |
It is found primarily in the fundus of the stomach |
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What gastric hormone has been shown to help diabetics, and has a short life time that has been modified to help weight loss?
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GLP-1 glucagon like peptide1
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What gastric hormone is released particularly after fat consumption?
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PYY peptide YY 3-36
What does it induce? |
It induces pancreatic polypeptide and neuropeptide Y (NPY) |
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What is the appetite center of the brain?
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The hypothalamus
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Lesions to the lateral hypothalamus (LH) cause what?
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Loss of apetite
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Lesions to the ventromedial (VMH) hypothalamus cause what?
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Incased apetite
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What does OREXIGENIC means?
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Means that it makes you gain weight, makes you hungry
GHRELIN is a major orexigenic hormone |
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What is the satiety center?
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VMH this is why when it is injured you become super hungry (hyperphagic)
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What is the hunger center?
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The hunger center is the LH that is why when it is injured you lose your apetite (hypophagia)
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What part of the hypothalamus will receive the fat signals from leptin?
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The ARCUATE NUCLEUS of the hypothalamus.
Why is it ideally located? |
The arcuate nucleus is ideally located because it has a leaky blood brain barrier. |
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What is one of the most potent orexigenic peptides known?
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NPY
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What is the pathway that leptin activates when there is a positive energy balance? Give all the steps
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Letpin will activate the anorexigenic pathwa.
+ POMC, CART, alpha MSH MC4R Will make body feel really full |
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When there is an energy deficit what is the pathway that will be activated that is normally inhibited by leptin?
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The orexigenic pathway that makes you hungry will be activated
NPY, AGRP, these will antagonize the MC4R receptor and will make you feel really hungry. |
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What is the inverse agonist of the MC4 receptor?
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AgRP
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In order to breathes the
CNS must be able to do what four things |
1. Create a rhythm
2. Translate 3. Adapt 4. Integrate |
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What has the main task of producing a breathing rhythm?
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The central pattern generator
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Why is expiration divided into two stages?
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E1 or PostI is marked by declining phrenic activity to slow exhalation thereby facilitating gas exchange.
There is no phrenic activity in the second stage of exhalation |
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When do respiratory neurons fire
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There are three main groups for respiratory neurons which correspond to the phases of breathing. They will fire based on what phase they belong to, they will also be further subdivided based on their location and on their projections.
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What are the three main regions where the respiratory neurons are located?
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1. Dorsal Respiratory Group( DRG) found in the nucleus of the solitary tract (NTS)
2. Ventral Respiratory Column (VRC) 3. Pontine Respiratory Group (PRG) |
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What neurons are responsible for the rhythm generation?
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the preBotzinger ocmplex locatedin the Venetral Respiratory COlumn
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What are the neurons that are resonsible for expiratory rhythm generation?
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Those found in the parafacial respiratory group (pFRG) located in the VRC
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What extends from the facial nucleus to the medullary spinal junction?
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The ventral respiratory column
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What neurons are responsible for inspiration generation?
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PreBotzinger neurons
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What group of neurons is the primary chemoreceptor of breathing?
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The Retrotrapezoid nucleus (RTN)
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The inspiration generator must relay the information to premotor bulbar neurons
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preBotz -> rVRG (rostral ventral respiratory group)
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The expiration generator must relay the information to premotor bular neurons
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pFRG (parafacial respiratory group) -> cVRG (caudal ventral respiratory group)
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What does the Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG) do?
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Processes afferent respiratory information
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What does the Pontine Respiratory Group do?
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It coordinates respiratory conrol with others.
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What are the 2 essential roles of the sensory afferent nerves found in the Dorsal Respiratory Group?
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1. Protective
2. Regulatory eg cough sneeze, mucus,airway constriction |
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What is the mechanism for sneezing and coughing (4)
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1. Deep rapid inspiratoion
2. Closing of glottis 3. Co-contraction of diaphragm and abdominal muscles 2. Opening of glottis with simultaneous relaxation of muscles. |
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Which reflex primarily directs airlfow through the mouth
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Coughing
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THere are rapidly adapting receptors (RAR), slowly adapting receptors (SAR), and C fibers.
Which ones are responsible for the cough refle? |
RAR and C fibers
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What is the function of SAR?
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To regulate breathing pattern
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What does the activation of SAR do?
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It terminates inspiration.
This is alled the Breuer-Hering inspiratory terminating reflex. Shortens inspiration, which shortens expiration with the overall result of increasing breathing frequency. |
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SAR normally terminate inspiration, however they can also initiate expiration.
When would the Breuer-Hering expiratory facilitating reflex take effect? |
Expiration would be facilitated during an airway obstruction when inflation is maintained into the expiration period
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What does activation of slowly adapting respiratory receptors (SAR) do to airway diameter?
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It dilates the airway by inhibiting parasympathetic activity.
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Lung deflation or decrease in lung compliance will activate which receptors?
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RAR
Their activation will result in what? |
deep spontaneous inspiration. This often happens in patients with pulmonary edema. |
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What kind of breathing is elicited when C fibers are activated?
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Rapid shallow breathign
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Viw what nerve do the carotid and aortic body chemoreceptors relay information concerning arterial PO2
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via the carotid sinus nerve, a branch of the glossopharyngeal nerve.
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What pulmonary receptors can cause Apnea and mucus sercretion?
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C fibers
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Neurons within the ... are critical for the tonic and reflex regulation of arterial pressure?
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medulla and pons
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If you transect the spinal cord what happens immediately afterward to arterial pressure?
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You cut off sympathetic activity so blood pressure will fall to about 50mmHg
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What are the 2 vasomotor regions involved in cardiorespiratory control?
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1. Rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM)
2. Caudal ventrolateral medulla (CVLM) |
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What does the Rostal Ventrolateral Medulla (RVLM) do?
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It increases arterial pressure and heart rate.
Via what mechanism? |
RVLM, intermediolateral cell column, sympathetic preganglionic neurons |
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What does the Caudal Ventrolateral Medulla (CVLM) do?
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It inhibits the RVLM
they are an important part of the baroreceptor reflex pathway and are TONICALLY inhibiting the RVLM. |
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Parasympathetic cardiac motor neurons are concentrated in what two areas
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1. Dorsal motor nucelus of the vagus
2. Nucleus ambiguus what does each one do? |
Dorsal motor nucleus of vagus: decreases contractility Nucleus ambiguus: decreases heart rate. |
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Congenital central hypoventilation syndrome (CCHS) is caused by
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chemoreceptors that don't develp
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Obesity hypoventilation syndrome (OHS) is caused by
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Leptin resistance
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The Botzinger complex is located right next to what?
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The facial nucleus
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The autonomic nervous system acts with what two other systems to create various behaviiors?
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1. neuroendocrine
2. somatomotor Remember that Autonomic nervous system is one means by which BEHAVIORS are put into actions Each system receives input from different afferents |
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Does ANS play a role in emotion?
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Yes, it mediates both exprssion and experience of emotion
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Pontomedullary respiratory network is connected to:
1. respiratory premotor neurons, 2. parasympathetic premotor neurons 3. sympathetic premotor nuerons. What is the cardiovascular neural network connected to? |
Only the parsymp and the symp.
Cardiovascular neural network is NOT connected to the respiratory premotor neurons |
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What does the periaqueductal gray are play a role in?
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Plays a role in pain modulation and in defensive behavioirs like
1. fight 2. flight 3. freeze |
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What type of analgesia is associated with fight, flight and freeeze?
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Figha and flight: non-opiod mediated analgesia
freeze: opioid mediated analgesia It plays a role in MOTIVATED and EMOTIONAL behavior |
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The following
1. neuroendocrine motor zone 2. circadian timing network 3. pattern generator 4. behavior control column are part of the |
HYPOTHALAMUS
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When learning what happens to the hippocampus? (time wise)
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There are many physical and biochemical changes that occur, but they are only there for a week. Then the information is transferred elsewhere.
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Habituation, the decreased firing after repeated stimuli is due mostly to (2)
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1) decreased synaptic activitty from INTERNEURONS found between the sensory and the motor neurons
2) Decrease in the number of excitatory vesciles released from sensory terminals |
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What is mostly responsible for sensitization?
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There are both presynatic and postsynaptic axonal/dendriticchanges (growth)
There will also be increased neurotransmitter release and interneurons also play an important role. |
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What neurotransmitter is involved in sensitization (which is a HETEROSYNAPTIC process)?
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Multiple interneurons may be involved
1. glutamate 2. acetylcholine 3. dopamine 4. noradrenaline. |
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What is the biochemical pathway for sensitization?
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one of the abovementioned neuromodulators, metabotropic R, cAMP, PKA, closes K+ channels, bradening of action potential, increase in CA++ influx, increased transmitter release
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What kind of changes occur with long term potentiation (as far as post or pre synaptic)
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Both post and presynaptic changes occur.
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An injury where would impair declarative memory?
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Hippocampus
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what is the very important neurotransmitter involved in Long Term Potentiation (LTP)?
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GLUTAMATE
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What is the hippocampal trisynaptic circuit that is involved in LTP?
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Perforant pathway, DENTATE GYRUS, non-associative mossy fibers, C3, Shaffer associative pathway, C1
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In the shaffer associative pathway what is the biochemical pathway that occurs once glutamate is released onto the C1 neurons?
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Glutamate can go to NMDA or non-NMDA R. Normally goes to non-NMDA.
When there is LTP, there is a tetanic stimulus whicih removes the Mg2+ block from NMDA R, CaM Kinase, allows Ca++ in via a AMP mechanims and you get synaptic changes What is another important consequence? |
Phosphorylation of certain proteins |
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Rats are unable to find ramp in water maze and learn where it is when ...
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the hippocampus is injured
HIPPOCAMPUS IS VERY IMPORTANT IN SPATIAL LEARNING |
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Are habituation associative or non-associative? Why?
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They are NON-ASSOCIATIVE because the properties of one stimulus is altered
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What 2 rules are learned with classical conditioning
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1. Temporal contiguity: there is brief time interval between CS and US
2. Contingency: CS predicts occurrence of US |
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What elicits stronger responses, sensitization or conditioning?
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Sensitization!
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The changes that occur at CA1 neurons is also present for
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Classical conditioning as seen in experiments where they poof air into mammals' eyes.
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What lobe is the hippocampus located in?
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Temporal lobe
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temporal and personal associations area what type of memories?
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Declarative - the type that are created by the hippocampus
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Are preceptual memories declarative?
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NO.
Perceptual and motor skills are not declarative. Examples |
Learning procedures and rules like grammar, motor skills, golf swing, driving. |
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Procedural memoris are dependent on what?
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Basal ganglia
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Input from the cortex to the hippocampus occurs via: (2)
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1. entorhinal cortex
2. parahippocccampal cortex |
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Output from the hippocampus also involves the entorihnal cortex and parahippocampal cortex. Must exit via the
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Fimriba-fornix
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Papez circuit
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SPECIFIC to hippocampus and storing declarative memories
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What does the medial septum do with regards to the hippocampus?
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It sends important neuromodulators: GABA and ACh via the fornix
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HM whoh had a souble hippocampal removal surprised the scientific community by doing well on what 4 tasks?
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1. sorting
2. face perception 3. mirror drawing 4. incomplete figures |
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What did HM do poorly on?
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Declarative memory:
Digit span Visual stepping stone |
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What was wrong with RB anatomically?
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His CA1 cells were destroyed due to ischemia.
What could he not do? |
story recalll diagram recalll paired associate learning |
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If only one of your left temporal lobe is removed what deficits in memory would you expect?
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Arbitrary syllables will not be remembered.
What abour right temporal lobe? |
Visual location |
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What part of the hippocampus ciruit exhibits "spatial fields?"
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The CA1 neurons.
Meaning that they fire when the animal is at a given location. How is this imortant clinically? |
Explains why AD patients have such a hard time finding their way home |
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A patient suffers a severe ischemic attack that kills off his CA1 neurons, will the patient blink after repeatedly puffing air in his eyes?
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YES.
Short delay conditioning is independent of the hippocampus, and is associated with braiinstem structures. |
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What is priming?
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Recognizing that sound is coming from given bird (ex).
Is this declarative or procedural? |
Priming is procedural and not affected by hippocampal injury |
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The output end of the limbic system that extends from the septal area through the hypothalamus and into the midbrain reticular formation all go through what?
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The medial forebrain bundle.
what are all of these structures related with |
These structures are all related with good feelings that are involved in goal-directed behaviors. |
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What is the limbic loop?
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Hippocampus, fornix, mammillary bodies, anterior thalamus, cingulate cortex, parahippocampus/enetorhinal cortex, hippocampus.
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What system generally relates through the CINGULATE and PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRI
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The hippocampal system
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What part of the cortex (2 lobes) does the amygdaloid system relate to?
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Relates to prefrontal and anterior temporal cortex.
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What part of the thalamus is involved in the amygdaloid system?
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the dorsomedial nucleus is involved.
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Where does the septum have afferents and efferents to? (3)
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1. hippocampus
2. hypothalamus 3. amygdala The septum is a source of what 2 neuromodulators? |
GABA and ACh |
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What does the septum trigger in the hippocampus?
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it triggers Rhythm in the hippocampus.
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Besides all the functions just covered, what is the septum THE MOST IMPORTANT IN?
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It is very ery important for
1. PLASTICITY 2. INTEGRATION |
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What part of the limbic system is most likely injured in Korsakoff patients?
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Mammillary bodies
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What are the 2 main groups of afferents to the amygdala?
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1. Cortical medial group
2. Basolateral group |
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How does the cortical medial group direct afferents to the amygdala?
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from olfactory bulbs, septal region and hypothalamus
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Basolateral group sends afferents to the amygdala from where? and carrying what type of information?
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Basolateral group send information from the:
Brainstem, insular and temporal cortex. Carries visceral and taste afferents as well as sensory inputs |
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Lesions to amygdala do 3 important things:
1. changes in emotionality 2. Difficulty attaching emotional significance to objects and... |
also affects
ENDOCRINE and AUTONOMIC ACTIVITY |
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What is a major point of convergence of the limbic system (amygdala + hippocampus)
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The hypothalamus
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What plays a major executivee role in the regulation of autonomic, endocrine, visceral, sexual and basic affective responses?
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The hypothalamus.
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What effect will a unilateral lesion have on fear conditioning?
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Tremendous deficit
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