Life-Anatomy&Phys QTR 1

Bones and joints of the body and their associated cartilages

supports and protects the body

provides a specific area for muscle attachment

assists with body movements

stores cells that produce blood cells

stores minerals and lipids

Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Special sense organs (eyes & ears)

regulates body activities

through nerve impulses by detecting changes in the environment, interpreting that changes, and responding to the changes by bringing about muscular contractions or glandular secretions

Skin and structures associated with it (hair, nails, sweat and oil glands)

helps regulate body temperature

protects the body

eliminates some wastes (sweat)

helps make vitamin D

Detects sensations ( touch, pressure, pain, warmth, and cold)

specifically refers skeletal muscle tissue

Body movement

Maintains Posture

Produces heat

blood, heart and blood vessels

Heart pumps blood through blood vessels (blood carries O2 & nutrients to cells AND CO2 and waste from cells)

helps regular acidity, temperature and H2O content of body fluids

blood components help defend against disease and mend damaged blood vessels

Lungs and air passageways (pharynx, larynx, trachea, and bronchial tubes)

Transfer O2 from inhaled air to blood and CO2 from blood to exhaled air

Helps regulate acidity of body fluids

air through vocal cords produce sound

ALL glands and tissues that produce chemical regulators of body functions aka Hormones

Thymus
Adrenal Gland
Ovary
Testis
Pineal Gland
Pituitary Gland
Thyroid Gland
Pancreas

Regulates body activities

through hormones transported by the blood vessels by the various target organs

Lymphatic fluid (lymph) and vessels

Spleen, Thymus, Lymph nodes, & Tonsils

Cells that carry out immune response (T cells, B cells, and others)

Returns proteins to the blood

Carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood

Contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells & T cells

Protect against disease-causing microbes

Kidneys
Ureters
Urinary Bladder
Urethra

Produce, store, and eliminates urine

Eliminates wastes and regulates volume and chemical composition of blood

helps regulate acid-base balance of body fluids

Maintains body's mineral balance

Helps regulate red blood cell production

Organs of the gastrointestinal tract

Accessory digestive organs

Mouth
Pharynx
esophagus
Stomach
Small & Large Intestines
Rectum
Anus

Organs that assist in the digestive processes

salivary glands
liver
gallbladder
pancreas

Physical and chemical breakdown of food

absorbs nutrients

eliminates solid wastes

Gonads and associated organs

Female: Uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina and mammary gland
Male: epididymis, ductus deferens, penis

Gonads produce gametes and release hormones

Associated organs transport and store gametes

Mammary glands produce milk

reproduction and other body processes

unite to form a new organism

11

Differentiate between living and non-living

1) Metabolism
2) Responsiveness
3) Movement
4) Growth
5) Differentiation
6) Reproduction

Examination and dissection of a body to determine the cause of death

ONLY DONE POST-MORTEM

Maintaining a stable internal environment

By the feedback systems:

CNS and Endocrine systems

Through nerve impulses

Through hormones

ex: diabetes
--pancrease--not enough insulin
--insensitivity to glucose

1) Stimulus disrupts controlled variable
2) Receptor recognizes the change and sends message (INPUT)
3) Control center evaluates input and sends OUTPUT
4) Effector attempts to change the altered variable

Majority of homeostatic control mechanisms

OPPOSITE NOT bad!!!

reverse the change in a controlled variable, bringing it back to normal ranges

ex: High Blood Pressure is detected and then lowered to normal blood pressure

Aortic and Carotid arteries

FEW homeostatic control mechanisms are of this type

strengthen a change and MUST be shut down by an outside force

ex: contractions of uterus during child birth
hormonal control of ovulation
systems that control blood clotting

abnormality of structure/function

Specific illness characterized by signs and symptoms

subjective changes not observable from outside a person

ex: pain, headache, nausea

Observable or measureable changes

ex: Blood pressure, ankle swelling, fever

atomic (chemical)
cellular
tissues
organs
systems
organism

Divides the body into equal parts of left and right parts

Divides the body into top and bottom parts

Divides the body into front and back parts

FORMED BY THE CRANIAL BONES AND CONTAINS THE BRAIN

FORMED BY THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN & CONTAINS THE SPINAL CORD & THE BEGINNINGS OF THE SPINAL NERVES

AKA: SPINAL CAVITY

CONTAINS THE PLEURAL, PERICARDIAL, & MEDIASTINUM CAVITIES

AKA: CHEST CAVITY

EACH SURROUNDS A LUNG

THE SEROUS MEMBRANE OF EACH PLEURAL CAVITIY IS THE PLEURA

SURROUNDS THE HEART

SEROUS MEMBRANE = PERICARDIUM

CENTRAL POSITION OF THORACIC CAVITY BETWEEN THE LUNGS

EXTENDS FROM STERNUM TO VERTEBRAL COLUMN AND FROM NECK TO DIAPHRAGM

CONTAINS THE HEART, THYMUS, ESOPHAGUS, TRACHEA, AND SEVERAL LARGE BLOOD VESSELS

DIVIDED INTO THE ABDOMINAL AND PELVIC CAVITIES

CONTAINS STOMACH, SPLEEN, LIVER, GALLBLADDER, SMALL INTESTINE, & MOST OF LARGE INTESTINE

SEROUS MEMBRANE = PERITONEUM

CONTAINS URINARY BLADDER, PORTIONS OF LARGE INTESTINE, & INTERNAL ORGANS OF REPRODUCTION

RIGHT UPPER
LEFT UPPER
RIGHT LOWER
LEFT LOWER

RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC
EPIGASTRIC
LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC

RIGHT LUMBAR
UMBILICAL
LEFT LUMBAR

RIGHT INGUINAL
HYPOGASTRIC
LEFT INGUINAL

ORGANISM LEVEL

RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION

movement toward the middle of body

movement away from the middle of body

turning outward

turning inward

movement away from fetal position

straightening of a body part

movement toward fetal position

bending of a body part

the act of lying face down

turning palm downward or backward

the act of lying face up

turning palm upward or forward

turning on its own axis

moving a body part forward

moving a body part backward

the state of balance in the internal environment of the body achieved by various control mechanisms

Phospholipid bilayer
cholesterol
proteins
attached carbohydrates

attached to fat

Attached to proteins

"skin"

Barrier between inside and outside of cell

Transport (controls entry of materials)

Receives chemical and mechanical signals

Transmits signals between intra- and extra- cellular spaces

2/3 of total fluid within cells

Between cells = Interstitial
In Blood Vessels = Plasma
(55% of ECF, 91.5% H2O)
(Blood Cells 45% of ECF, 99% RBC, 1% RBC and Platellets)
In lymphatic vessels = Lymphatic

the liquid doing the dissolving

usually water

The dissolved material

particles or gas

Amount of solute in a given amount of solvent

Difference in concentration between 2 areas of solution

NaCl

"Simple Diffusion"

concentration gradient of solute present

Solute can diffuse across a membrane if membrane is present

Pass across the lipid bilayer IF lipid-soluble or IF polar molecules

Pass through ion channels, which may be gated

O2
CO2
N2
fatty acids
steroids
fat-soluble vitamins

H2O
Urea

K+
Ca2+
Cl-

Requires a carrier IN membrane but NOT ATP, no energy required

Solute goes down concentration gradient

Maximum transport speed depends on number of carriers

diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane

permeable to solvent
impermeable to solute

Isotonic
Hypotonic
Hypertonic

solution outside RBC has same concentration of solute as RBC:
0.9% NaCl

Solution outside of RBC has lower concentration:
0% NaCl-->hemolysis

solution outside of RBC has higher concentration:
4% NaCl-->crenation

Shrinkage

Absorption

1) A carrier (aka PUMP)
2) Energy (ATP)

UP a concentration gradient

moving important ions

SODIUM POTASSIUM PUMP

(Na+/K+)

a) across plasma membranes
b) energy
c) lower
d) higher

ENERGY (ATP)

small membrane sac

importing materials into the cell

ingestion of particles such as bacteria into white blood cells

ingestion of fluid

exporting materials from the cell

cell contents

includes organelles and cytosol

excludes the nucleus

-Maintains shape of cell
-Positions organelles
-changes cell shape

Microfilaments
Intermediate filaments
Microtubules

--two centrioles arranged perpendicular to each other
-Pericentriolar material

microtubules: 9 clusters of 3 (triplets)

Tubulin that grows the mitotic spindle

moves chromosomes to ends of cell during cell division

motion

Single tail like structure on sperm

Propels sperm forward in reproductive tract

Hair-like structures in groups

found in Respiratory System to move mucus

the sperm lacks a flagellum

within the nucleus, in the nucleolus

protein synthesis, on ER or freely within the cytoplasm

ribosomal RNA and proteins

subunits

endoplastmic reticulum or free in the cytosol

Network of folded membranes

Synthesis, intracellular transport

Rough

Smooth

Studded with ribosomes and are sites of protein synthesis

ribosomes

-Lipid synthesis
-Release of glucose in liver cells into bloodstream
-Drug detoxification (especially in liver cells)
-Storage and release of Ca2+ in muscle cells

are called "sarcoplasmic reticulum" or, SR.

They store and release Ca2+ in muscle cells

Flattened membranes (cisterns) with bulging edges (like stacks of pita bread)

Modify proteins --> glycoproteins and lipoproteins that

1) Become parts of plasma membranes
2) Are stored in lysosomes OR
3) Are exported by exocytosis

Contain digestive enzymes

Lysosomes

Lysosomes

destruction of worn out parts of cell

death of old cells

Hereditary disorder

One missing lysosomal enzyme which leads to nerve destruction

Liver

detoxify

Digest unneeded or faulty proteins

Parkinson or Alzheinmer diseases

Sausage-shaped with many folded membranes and liquid matrix containing enzymes

Have some DNA and ribosomes

a system of folded membranes

Because they ribosomes

Known as "power house of cell"-->Nutrient energy is released and trapped in ATP

oxygen

Mitochondria

Round or oval structure surrounded by nuclear envelope with nuclear pores

Contains the nucleolus

Makes ribosomes that pass into cytoplasm through nuclear pores

Stores genetic material (DNA) in genes arranged in 46 chromosomes

contains information for directing protein synthesis in this cell and new cells

30,000

1) Nuclear = Transcription
2) Cytoplasmic = Translation

all parts of the body functioning together

several related organs that have a common function

e) None of the above

True

Skeletal System

Integumentary System

b) group of cells that work together to perform a particular function

Skeletal System

Nervous System

d) A unit of matter that consists of a nucleus and electrons

Urinary

Respiratory and Urinary

True

True

True

True

Nervous

A positive feedback system

-Patient must be facing the observer
-Arms at their side
-Thumbs must be out
-Palms forward

Superior

Anterior

Inferior

Proximal

Ipsilateral

Midsaggital Plane

Frontal Plane

Cavity

Horizontal plane

c) Pericardial cavity

Urinary bladder, Spleen, Rectum, Ureters

True

True

True

True

Sign

a Local Disease

a Disease

Symptoms

Systemic disease

Diagnosis

-Stores minerals
-support the soft tissues of the body
-Aide in movement by attaching muscles
-Protects internal organs from damage

Diaphysis

Endosteum

Epiphysis

Metaphysis

Osteoclasts

Osteoblasts

False

osteons

Lacunae

Compound fracture

Spiral fracture

Greenstick Fracture

an impacted fracture

a partial fracture

Colles's fracture

Pott's Fracture

Vitamin D

Paget' Disease

Osteoporosis

Nondisplaced Fracture

T9-T10

Rickett's

L4

L1

T7

T1

?????

EOP

External Occipital Protubulance

Coccyx

Greater in length than width

Has one or more epiphyses

Femur

True

Sutural bones

Meatus

Foramen

a Sulcus

Tubercle

Facet

Epicondyle

?????????????

True

Sphenoid Bone

Temporal Bone

Body, Angle, Ramus

Coronal suture

Squamosal suture

Sagittal suture

Posterolateral frontanel

Anerior Fontanel

Hyoid

33

4

Sacral

after birth

C1-C2

Lordotic

Spina Bifida

5

Scapula

lateral to the ulna

Lunate
Capitate
Pisiform

ilium
Pubis
Ischium

False

Femur

Medial

Nucleus

RNA polymerase (enzymes) transcripes DNA into RNA

When DNA is transcribed into RNA

C-G
G-C
T-A
A-U

Messenger RNA
Ribosomal RNA
Transfer RNA

mRNA

Directs synthesis of polypeptide

component of ribosomes

tRNA

Carries amino acids to ribosome for reaction

3 different RNAs

mRNA
rRNA
tRNA

From nucleus, mRNA direct sequencing of amino acids

from Ribosomes, are the sites of translation

Carries the amino acids to the sites on mRNA

1) Initiator rRNA attaches to a start codon
2) Large and small ribosomal subunits join to form a functional ribosome and initiator tRNA fits into position on the ribosome
3) Anticodon of incoming tRNA pairs with next mRNA codon beside initiator tRNA
4) Amino acid on initiator tRNA forms a peptide bond with amino acid beside it.
5) tRNA leaves the ribosome; ribosome shifts by one codon; tRNA binds to newly exposed codon (Repeat 3-5)
6) Protein synthesis stops when the ribosome reaches stop codon on mRNA

Happens in ALL body cells, except gametes

Period of growth and development of cell

Preparation for reproduction: DNA synthesis

Division of nucleus

4 phases

division of cytoplasm

Chromatin condenses into pairs of chromotids connects at centromeres

Centromeres form the mitotic cpindle that extends from pole to pole of the cell

nuclear envelope and nucleolus break down

inhibiting formation of the mitotic spindle during Prophase

microtubles

centromeres of chromatid pairs are aligned along microtubules at the center of the metaphase plate

"equator"

Centromeres split, separating "sister chomatids"

Chromosomes are pulled to opposite ends of spindle by microtubules of the mitotic spindle

cytokinesis begins by the formation of the cleavage furrow

"chromosomes"

chromosomes revert to threadlike chromatin

nuclear envelope and nucleolus reappear

Mitotic spindle breaks up

cytokinesis is completed

function

may reach several feel in length to carry nerve impulses from spinal cord to toe

can produce effective contractions because they are cylindrical or spindle-shaped

Micovili increase surface area to maximize absorptive ability

an Oocyte

--genetically programmed
--decreased rate of mitosis
--telomeres
--protein damage
--free radicals damage
--Autoimmune response

Nerve cells and skeletal muscle cells cannot be replaced

= DNA at tips of chromosomes

telomeres shorten with aging

= rapid aging

profound telomere shortening

glucose cross-links

-support
-protection
-assist in movements
-mineral homeostasis
-blood cell production
-triglyceride storage

red bone marrow

such as thigh, leg arm, forearm, fingers and toes

longer than wide

almost cube shaped

most wrist and ankle bones

thin and extensive surface

cranial bones, sternum, ribs and scapulas

Do not fit into other categories

vertebra and some facial bones

shaft of long bone

made up of mostly compacted bone

broad end of long bone

mostly spongy bone

growth area between diaphysis and epiphysis

hyaline cartilage join of a long bone

fibrous covering over most of long bone

"marrow'

Cavitiy with fat and blood cells

membrane lining medullary cavitiy

Microscopic portion of the bone

25% water, 25% collagen fibers, 50% mineral salts

Osteogenic cells in periosteum,

Osteogenic cells develop into OSTEOBLASTS

secrete collagen fibers

forms bone extracellular matix and become trapped in lacunae, which then they are called OSTEOCYTES

Formed from a trapped osteoblast

Osteocytes maintain bone tissue

are formed from MONOCYTES

Functions in resorption: Digests bone matrix for normal bone turnover

--arranged in OSTEONS
--CENTRAL CANAL through center of osteon
--CONCENTRIC LAMELLAE
--LACUNAE
--CANALICULI
--PERIOSTEUM
--PERFORATING CANALS

aka Haversian Systems

cylinders running parallel to long axis of bone

contains blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics

Layers of matrix

"lakes" between lamellae

contain osteocytes

"little canals"

Contain extensions of osteocytes
Permit flow of ECF between central canal and lacunae

covers compact bone

"Volkmann's Canals"

Carry blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves from periosteum

They supply central canals and also bone marrow

NOT arranged in osteons

Irregular latticework of trabeculae

is lighter than compact bone

These contain lacunae with osterocytes and canaliculi

Spaces between trabeculae may contain red bone marrow

"ossification"

Initial bone development
Growth
Remodeling
Repair

happens in embryo and fetus

growth into adulthood

replacement of old bone

if fractures occur

Early Connective Tissue

This initial "skeleton" model will be replaced by bone tissue beginning at 6 weeks of embryonic life

Intramembranous

Endochondrial

"little canales"

contain extensions of osteocytes
Permit flow of EFC between central canal and lucunae

Carry blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves from periosteum

They supply central canals and also bone marrow

"Early Connective Tissue"

This initial "skeleton" model will be replaced by bone tissue beginning at 6 weeks of embryonic life

Intramembranous

Endochondrial

bone forms within sheets of mesenchyme that resemble membranes

Only a few bones form by this process: flat bones of the skull, lower jawbone, and part of clavicle

Flat bones of the skull
Mandible
Clavicle

Mesenchyme forms hyaline cartilage which then develops into bone

MOST bones

1) development of ossification center
2) Calcification
3) Formation of trabeculae
4) Periosteum forms

Development of ossification center

Mesenchyme celles --> Osteogenic --> Osteoblasts

Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix

Calcification: Cells become Osteocytes

In lacunae, they extend cytoplasmic processes to each other

Deposit calcium and other mineral salts

Formation of trabeculae aka spongy bone

Blood vessels grow in and red marrow is formed

Periosteum covering the bone forms from mesenchyme

6 Steps

1) Formation of the "bone"
2) Growth of cartilage model
3) Primary Ossification Center
4) Medullary cavity
5) Secondary Ossification Center
6) Articular cartilage and epiphyseal cartilage

Formation of cartilage model of the "bone"

As Mesenchyme cells develop into chondroblasts

Grow of Cartilage Model

--Cartilage "bone" grows as chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix
--Chondrocytes increase in size, matix around them calcifies
--Chondrocytes die as they are cut off from nutrients, leaving small spaces aka Lacunae

Small spaces that are left when chondocytes die as they are cut off from nutrients

Primary Ossification Center

--Perichondrium sends nutrient artery inwards into disintegrating cartilage
--Osteogenic cells in perichondrium become osteoblasts that deposit bony matrix over remnants of calcified cartilage --> Spongy bone forms in center of this model
--As perichondrium starts to form bond, the membrane is called periosteum

Medullary (Marrow) Cavity

--Spongy bone in center of the model growns towards ends of the model
--Oceteoclasts break down some of new spondy bone forming cavity through most of diaphysis (marrow cavity)
--Most of the wall of the diaphysis is replaced by a collar of compact bone

Secondary Ossification Center

--Similar to step 3 except that nutrient arteries enter ends (epiphyses) of bones and osteoblasts deposit bony matrix --> spongy bone forms in epiphyses from center outwards
--Occurs about time of birth

Articular cartilage and epiphyseal cartilage

--Articular cartilage at ends of epiphyses become articular cartilage
-- Epiphyseal (growth) plate of cartilage remains between epiphysis and diaphysis until bone growth ceases

1) Chondrocytes divide and grow more cartilage on epiphyseal side of the epiphyseal plate
2) Chrondrocytes on the diaphyseal side die and are replaced by bone

Diaphyseal Side TO Epiphyseal Side

Cartilage in epiphyseal plate is completely replaced by bone, which creates this line

Growth in length stops between 18-25 years

As bones grow in length, they must also grown in thickness

Perichondrial osteoblasts --> Osteoblasts --> Lay down additional lamellae of compact bone

Simultaneously, osteoclasts in the endosteum destroy interior bone to increase width of the marrow

Remodeling in response to use

_Resorption by osteoclasts AND
Deposition by osteoblasts

Dead Tissue remobed
Chondroblasts --> Fibrocartilage --> Spongy bone deposited by osteoblasts --> remodeled to compact bone

Incomplete break, crack

Bone broken into two or more pieces

"simple"

Not through skin

"Compound"

Broken ends break skin

--adequate minerals
--Vitamins
--Hormones
--Weight-bearing activity

Ca
P
Mg

A
C
D

Before Puberty: hGH + insulin-like growth factors

Thyroid hormone and insulin also required

Sex hormones contribute to adolescent growth spurt

Blood leves of Ca2+ controlled by NEGATIVE FEEDBACK LOOPS

Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) increases osteoclast activity + decreases loss of Ca2+ in urine

Calcitonin decreases osteoclast activity

Bone strengthened in response to use

Bone resorbed during disuse

--During prolonged bed rest
--Fracture with cast/immobilizer
--Astronauts without gravity

Axial

Appendicular

Bones around body axis

EX skull bones, hyoid, ribs, sternum, vertebrae

Bones of the upper and lower limbs plus shoulder and hip bones that connect them

ex: Clavivle, Humerus, Radius and Ulna, Femur

Frontal, 2 parietal, 2 temporal, occipital, sphenoid, and ethmoid

2 nasal, 2 maxilla, 2 zygomatic, 2 lacrimal, 2 palatine, 2 inferior nasal conchae, 1 mandible, 1 vomer

Immovable joint between skull bones

Coronal, sagittal, labdoidal, squamous

aka cavities

Lacated in bones near nasal cavity

soft spot in fetal skull

Allow deformation at birth
Calcify to form sutures

encloses spinal cord

supports head

Point of attachment for muscles of back, ribs, and pelvic girdle

7 Cervical
12 thoracic
5 Lumbar
1 Sacrum
1 Coccyx

4 Normal Curves

Cervical and Lumbar curves are convex

Thoracic and sacral curves are concave

Increase strength
Help in balance
Absorb shocks

Cervical and Lumbar

Bulge anteriorly

thoracic and Sacral

Bulge posterior

ONE

FOUR

Body
Vertebral arch
Seven pocesses from the vertebral arch

disc-shaped anterior portion

Posteriorly back from body

With the body, creates a hole called vertebral foramen

Transverse process extending laterally on each side

Spinous process extending dorsally

Two each of superior and inferior articular processes that form joints with vertebrae

C1-C7 (from superior to inferior)

Spinous process often bifid with transverse foramina on transverse processes

"atlas"

Articulates with head, specialized to support head

Lacks body and spinous process

"Axis"

Has body and spinous process

Called dens "tooth" that creates a pivot for head rotation

T1-T12

Larger than cervical
Have facets for articulations with ribs

L1-L5

Largest and strongest
Spinous processes short and thick

S1-S5 fused into ONE unit

Foundation for pelvic girdle
Contain sacral foramina for nerves and blood vessels

4 coccygeal vertebrae fused into ONE

Sternum, Costal Cartilages, Ribs and bodies of T1-T12

forms by 3 portions fused by about age 25 years:

Manubrium, body, xiphoid process

12 Pairs

True Ribs - #1-7; articular with sternum directly by costal cartilages

False ribs - #8-12; do NOT articulate with sternum directly by costal cartilages

Function: Attach bones of upper limbs to axial skeleton

Clavicles and scapulas: bilateral

Arm Bone

--articulates with scapula (glenoid cavity) at should joint
--Articulates with radius and ulna at elbow

Medial Bone

Lateral bone - thumb sid

Wrist bones

8 of them

5 bones of palm of hand

Number 1-5 starting with thumb

14 bones of fingers

numbered 1-5 metacarpals

each finger except the thumb has proximal, middle and distal phalanges; thumb LACKS middle phalanx

Includes TWO coxal bones
--joined anteriorly at pubic symphysis
--Posteriorly attached to sacrum at sacroiliac joint

Like pelvis, is formed by two hip bones--> Pelvic Girdle + sacrum and Coccyx

"greater pelvis"

broad region superior to pelvic brim

contains abdominal organs

"lesser Pelvis"

Small region inferior to pelvic brim

contains urinary bladder + internal reproductive organs

3 separate bones fused by age 23 to form a "hip bone"

Ilium
Ischium
Pubis

Largest and most superior portion of the coxal bone

Lower, posterior part of the coxal bone

Lower, anterior part of the coxal bone

Ilium, Ischium, and Pubis meat at the ACETAULUM of the hip bone

"socket for head of femur"

"thigh bone"

Largest bone in the body
--articulates with hip proximally and with the tibia and patella distally
--head (fits into acetabulum) and greater trochanter at proximal end

"kneecap"

In anterior of knee joing

"shin bone"

Large, medial, weight-bearing bone of leg

Longest, thinnest bone in body

Lateral to tibia and smaller
does NOT articular with femur!

"ankle"
Has 7 bones

ankle bone

"heel bone'

"foot bones"

numbered 1-5 from medial to lateral

"toe bones"

Big toe has proximal and distal phalanges while others have proximal, medial and distal phalanges

Number like matatarsals from 1-5

Males usually have heavier bones
--related to muscle size and strength

Female pelvis is wider and shallower than male
--Allows for childbirth

More bone formed than lost

Gain and loss of bone is about equal

As levels of sex steroids decline with age:

Bone resorption > bone formation

Bones become brittle and lose calcium