PD BIO 205 Final Exam Study Guide

Mouth
Salivary Glands
Teeth
Esophagus
Stomach
Small Intestine
Large Intestine

Food broken down
Lubricated
Chemical Digestion begins with Salivary Amylase

moistens, dissolves, binds foods into a bolus

breaks food down mechanically

muscular tube, continuation of the pharynx which ends at the radial sphincter at the top of the stomach, transports food to stomach

Mouth - Mastication
Esophagus - Swallowing & Peristalsis
Stomach - Peristalsis, Additional contractions
Small Intestine - Peristalsis, Rhythmic Segmentation
Large Intestine - Peristalsis, Mass Movement

Rugae, the body of the stomach
Folds of the Stomach
Stomach can hold a little over a gallon of food (4.5 quarts)

Small intesting

Pancreas:
Endocrine Gland
Exocrine Gland
Liver
Gall bladder

Endocrine Gland:
secretes insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin
Exocrine Gland:
Digestive enzymes, amylase for starch and trypsin for protein, lipase for fat

Presence or absence of Y chromosome

Both gonads develop from same tissue, the indifferent gonad.
If Sry is present, testes develop, if absent, ovaries develop

presence or absence of testes
Male has Testosterone and Mullerian Inhibiting Hormone (MIH)

Male - influenced by DHT (hormone from testosterone)

Males - Estradiol (from Testosterone) masculinizes the brain.
Females - Estradiol binds to alpha-fetoprotein, the brain is then feminized

Genetic/Chromosomal sex misalignment - body tries to form testes instead of ovaries
Adrenal Gland malfunction - Fetus can develop congenital adrenal hyperplasia (enlarged clitoris, fusion of labiosacrotal swellings trying to form a scrotum)
Phenotypic/Endocrine - Male fetuses lack T and DTH receptors causing testicular feminization
Brain sex - T in males is converted to Estradiol, brain remains feminized, vice versa

hCG (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin))
Secreted by placenta causes CL to continue secreting progesterone and estrogen

Tired, run down
Morning sickness
Increased appetite
Changes of areola
Slight weight gain
Increased waistline

Increased appetite
Weight gain
Increased waistline
Increased breastsize

Appetite, Weight, Waistline, Breast size
Progressive discomfort
Constipation
Urination
Eye/midline pigmentation
Hair loss/gain
Diabetes potential

hCG, Estrogen, Progesterone, Placental Lactogen, Relaxin, Corticotropin-relaxing hormone

Resulting in:
Increased output by heart and lungs, decreased GI motility
Increased blood flow to reproductive tract

Fetal pituitary gland maturation releases ACTH stimulating fetal adrenal glands to produce steroid hormones, placenta increases production of E and decreases P. E increases oxitocin receptors and stimulates prostaglandin production which stimulates rhythmic uteran contractions, causes positive feedback producing more oxitocin

First Stage - dilation
Second Stage - delivery
Third Stage - placental expulsion

Breasts will swell, milk producing lobules within mammary glands, ducts to carry milk to nipples, P, E, and placental lactogen

Suckling stimulates nerve endings
Signal carried to hypothalamus
Hypo produces oxitocin, released by PP
Oxytocin causes mammary lobules to contract
Milk is emitted

Developmental PROCESS by which one becomes capable to reproducing

Nutrition
Body Fat
Genetics

provide repeated opportunities for reproduction
Discharge of sloughed-off endometrial tissue and associated fluid of no pregnancy occurs

14 of a 28 day cycle

CL regression induced by prostraglandin F2 alpha, results in decline of P and E levels

failure to conceive after one year of regular unprotected sexual intercourse

Azoospermia/Oligospermia
Endocrine disorders
Testicular damage
Antibodies to own sperm
Accessory gland malfunction
Environmental causes including stress
Disease

Failure to ovulate
Tubal blockage
Absence of implantation
Reduced sperm transport
Antibodies to sperm
Pregnancy wastage (miscarry)
Disease
Environmental conditions including stress

80% explained
Female 40% of time
Male 30% of time
Couple 30% of time
20% unexplained

Assisted Reproduction Techniques
Options:
Timed intercourse
Artificial insemination
In vitro fertilization
Intracytoplasmic sperm injection

atoms/molecule - cells - tissues - organ - organ system - organism - population - community - ecosystem - biosphere

Ionic bonds - attractive forces between oppositely charged ions
Covalent bonds - electron sharing
Hydrogen bonds -

Triglycerides, cholesterol, phospholipids
energy storage, insulation, cell membrane, hormones
Fats

sugars, starches, etc...
Energy nutrient, component of structural elements, hormones

Enzymes, antigens, hormones
Structural elements, defense, hormones, catalysts
Amino Acids

DNA, RNA, ATP
Genetic info, energy

Nucleus - genetic info/control center
RER - synthesis/package of proteins
Ribosome - form proteins from aas
SER - synthesize lipids
Golgi apparatus - process, package, and distribute molecules from ER
Lysosomes
Mitochondria - ATP, energy
Vesicles and vacuoles - store and transport substances
Cytoskeleton - backbone/frame
Cell membrane -

changes that a sperm must undergo to become capable of fertilization. Involves addition and removal of surface molecules and occurs in the female tract

fusion of plasma membrane with acrosomal membrane (head of sperm) releasing acrosome conents (enzymes). Equatorial segment of sperm membrane is then present

slow chemical reaction preventing plyspermy. Zona block

Fusion of male and female pronuclei

retrograde flow
Acidic
Phagocytosis
Cervical mucus
lost in endometrium

Somatic cells - mitosis
Germ cells - meiosis

disease of abnormal cell division and differentiation
genetically unstable
high, out of control division
high mobility
seem more undifferentiated
escape apoptotic mechanisms

mutations in DNA

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous

simple/stratified squamous
simple/stratified cuboidal
simple/psuedostratified columnar

blood
bone
cartilage
adipose tissue
loose and dense fibrous tissue

skeletal
smooth
cardiac

neuron
neuroglia (glial cells)

Cell division accompanied by reduction in cell size

8-16 cell embryo

Just before hatching

Embryo escapes out of ZP

Yolk sac - source of blood and germ cells
Amnion - exercise and cushion
Chorion - outermost sac of placenta, exchange between f and m circulation

osteon - funtional unit
osteoblasts - build bone
osteocysts - mature bone cells
osteoclasts - breakdown bone matrix

region where motor neuron comes in contact wtih muscle cells, nt released. Structures present: axon terminal, nerve impulse, synaptic vesicle, synaptic end and bulb, sarcolemma, synaptic cleft, motor and end plate

Calcium ions diffuse into sarcoplasm bind to troponin
Troponin shape changes
Myosin binding sites on actin are exposed
Byosin heads bind to actin and pull actin filament
ADP and inorganic phosphate released from myosin
New ATP made undoing everything

A band - thick filaments
I band - thin actin filaments

myosin filaments form cross bridges with I band and pulls I band to center of sarcomere when calcium present

Eosinophils, Basophils, Neutrophil, Lymphocyte, Monocyte
Cytes are agranulocytes
phils are granulocytes

wandering professional phagocytes
enter tissues and become macrophages

Inflammatory response
Secrete/store histamine and heparin

increase in response to allergies and parasitic infections, chemical secretions that counter inflammatory response and kill parasites

Phagocyte specialists, first cells to respond to infection, short life span, clean up debris, example: pus

volume of air that enters/leaves during single respiratory cycle

Volume during forced inhalation minus tidal volume

volume during forced expiration minus tidal volume

remaining in lungs after most forced expiration

inspiratory plus resting tidal plus expiratory reserve volume plus residual

total lung capacity minus residual

Sensory/motor
somatic, autonomic

sympathetic/parasympathetic