Physio Test 1

7%

26%

67%

About twice as much body water is in intracellular fluid than extracellular (33% intracellular as opposed to 67% extracellular)

The mean steady-state value maintained by a homeostatic system (about which there exists a range of values).

A system in which the regulatory signal depends upon the read "output" value.

A feedback system whose regulatory signal operates to decrease the difference between the read "output" value and the desired value.

A feedback system whose regulatory mechanism increases the effect of any perceived disturbance, ultimately driving the system to extremum.

Control mechanism has predictive quality. Regulation can only come from brain.

Theory of regulation of a system's reaction to disturbance

System arranged in such a way that it can self-regulate (and/or regulate other systems)

Can correct for disturbances that affect the system, but not those that affect perception of system variables (in which case the "output" that is compared the set-point is not the actual output).

After reaching extremum, negative feedback control restores the system to its initial set point.

oChemical
oCellular
oTissue
oOrgan
oOrgan Systems
oOrganism

1. Concentration of nutrients
2. Concentration of gases
3. Concentration of wastes
4. Regulation of pH
5. Concentration of water, ions
6. Blood volume and pressure
7. Temperature

•Observation
•Hypothesis
•Experiment (control group and experimental group)
•Collecting data
•Conclusions

•Observations, questions, hypotheses as tentative answers to questions
•Deductions leading to predictions, and then tests of predictions to see if a hypothesis is falsifiable

•A hypothesis is a tentative or educated guess at an answer to a problem or question that is being asked.
•A good hypothesis makes predictions that can be tested.
•Part of the process of hypothesis-based science uses deductive reasoning, which flows from a general premise to a specific premise.
•The important aspect of this process is that the deduction can be tested.

process by which a stable internal environment within an organism is maintained

a

a

a

The maintenance of a water and solute balance, osmoregulation, the removal of metabolic waste products, excretion, the regulation of blood glucose levels, and the maintenance of a constant internal body temperature, thermoregulation

The kidneys, liver, the large intestine, and the skin

Filtration, secretion, and reabsorption

Essential substances such as glucose, salts, and amino acids and water are reabsorbed from the filtrate and returned to the blood

It increases water reabsorption, leading to a rise in blood volume, and hence a rise in blood pressure

It overwhelms it, leading to the excretion of glucose in the urine

It helps regulate blood glucose levels and produces urea

It is processed, which converts excess glucose to glycogen for storage

The liver will convert glycogen into glucose and release it into the blood

Via the process of gluconeogenesis

Nitrogenous wastes

They are absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
They undergo a process called deamination

It is when the amino group is removed from the amino acid and converted into ammonia, a highly toxic compound

2 POSSIBILITIES....
1. Excreted in the urine
OR
2. The liver combines the ammonia with carbon dioxide to form urea, a relatively nontoxic compound

1. It is released into the blood and eventually excreted by the kidneys

Detoxification of toxins, storage of iron and vitamin B12, destruction of old erythrocytes, synthesis of bile, synthesis of various blood proteins, defense against various antigens, beta-oxidation of fatty acids to ketones, and interconversion of carbohydrates, fats, and amino acids

It absorbs water and sodium not previously absorbed in the small intestine and are
An excretory organ for excess salts

1. Temperature
2. Concentration
3. Size
4. pH
5.Biological catalyst (enzymes)

a

a

a

a

RNA nucleotide containing adenine and two additional phosphate groups

It is the sum of all chemical reactions that take place in the cell

biosynthesis of complex organic compounds from simpler molecules; requires energy

releases energy; break down of complex organic compounds into smaller molecules

They obtain their energy catabolically, via the breakdown of organic nutrients that must be ingested

C6H12O6 + 6O2+ 6CO2 + 6H20 + Energy

In the covalent bonds attaching the phosphate groups

It has the nitrogenous base adenine, the sugar ribose, and three weakly linked phosphate groups

It stores energy in the form of high potential electrons

*Hydrogen atoms are removed
*They are accepted by NAD+, FAD, and NADP+

transport the high-energy electrons of the hydrogen atoms to a series of carrier molecules on the inner mitochondrial membrane

temporarily store and release energy in the form of electrons through their successive oxidations and reductions

series of reactions that lead to the oxidative breakdown of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate

2 pyruvate
2 net ATP
2 NAD+
2NADH
2H
2H20

substrate level phosphorylation

This is the reduction of pyruvate into ethanol or lactic acid.

The pyruvate is decarboxylated to become acetaldehyde. The acetaldehyde is reduced by the NADH generated in glycolysis to yield ethanol. It produces NAD+ so that glycolysis can continue

The pyruvate is reduced to lactic acid. Then regeneration of NAD+ . The pH goes down in the blood, which causes muscle fatigue. The lack acid is oxidized back to pyruvate and the cell enters cellular respiration when oxygen is restored

36-38 ATP

It acts as the final acceptor of electrons that are passed from carrier to carrier during the electron transport chain (the final stage of glucose oxidation)

-catalyzed by Reaction-specific enzymes

The pyruvate formed during glycolysis is transported from the cytoplasm into the mitochondrial matrix where it is decarboxylated (loses its CO2)

\when the two-carbon acetyl group from acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate. It forms the six-carbon citrate

2 CO2 are released, and oxaloacetate is regenerated for use in another turn of the cycle

Substrate level phosphorylation

Electrons are transferred to them, making NADH and FADH2

to the electron transport chain where more ATP is produced Through oxidative phosphorylation

2 Pyruvates

6 NADH
4 CO2
4 H+
2 FADH2
2 ATP
2 CoA

It is a complex carrier mechanism located on the inside of the inner mitochondrial membrane

ATP is produced when high energy potential electrons are transferred from NADH and FADH2 to oxygen by a series of carrier molecules located in the inner mitochondrial membrane

Free energy is released; It is used to form ATP

It is the first molecule of the ETC

also picks up a pair of hydrogen ions from the surrounding medium; this forms H2O

The ETC becomes backlogged with electrons.

NAD+ cannot be regenerated and glycolysis cannot continue unless lactic acid fermentation occurs.

They stop ATP synthesis.

Cyanide blocks the transfer of electrons from cytochrome a3 to O2. Dinitrophenol uncouples the electron transport chain from the proton gradient established across the inner mitochondrial membrane

NADH dehydrogenase, the b-c1 complex, and cytochrome oxidase

3 ATP

3 ATP

2 ATP

Free hydrogen ions are released and accumulate in the mitochondrial matrix

It pumps them out of the matrix, across the inner mitochondrial membrane, and into the intermembrane space at each of the three protein complexes

A positively charged acidic environment in the intermembrane space

A proton-motive force (the force that drives the H+ back across the inner membrane and into the matrix)

To pass through the membrane which is impermeable to ions, the H+ must flow through specialized channels provided by enzyme complexes--called ATP synthases

Oxidative phosphorylation

The body utilizes other energy sources--carbohydrates first, then fats, then proteins

These substances are first converted to either glucose or glucose intermediates, which can be then degraded in the glycolytic pathway and the TCA cycle

Disaccharides are hydrolyzed into monosaccharides, most of which can be converted into glucose or glycolytic intermediates

glucose-6-phosphate, (a glycolytic intermediate)

triglycerides (stored in adipose tissue) are hydrolyzed by lipases to fatty acids and glycerol, and are carried by the blood to other tissues for oxidation

G3P; glyceraldehide 3-phosphate (a glycolytic intermediate)

It must be activated in the cytoplasm. this process requires 2ATP.

Once activated, The fatty acid is transported into the mitochondrion and taken through a series of beta-oxidation cycles--which converts them into two-carbon fragments.

Then, they are converted into acetyl CoA & enter the Citric Acid Cycle

what is generated? 1 NADH and 1 FADH2

The body degrades amino acids only when there is not enough carbohydrate available.

Most undergo a transamination reaction

It loses an amino group to form an alpha-keto acid

Most are converted into acetyl-CoA, pyruvate, or one of the intermediates of the citric acid cycle

NADH
FADH2

The initial phosphorylation of glucose is required to destabilize the molecule for cleavage into two G3P.

Then, (for each G3P), 4 phosphate groups are transferred to ADP by substrate-level phosphorylation to make 4 ATP and 2 NADH are produced when the triose sugars are oxidized.

Only glycolysis may be anaerobic

2

transamination

the transamination reaction results in the exchange of an amine group on one acid with a ketone group on another acid. It is analogous to a double replacement reaction.

The most usual and major keto acid involved with transamination reactions is alpha-ketoglutaric acid, an intermediate in the citric acid cycle. A specific example is the transamination of alanine to make pyruvic acid and glutamic acid.

oxidative deamination

During oxidative deamination, an amino acid is converted into the corresponding keto acid by the removal of the amine functional group as ammonia and the amine functional group is replaced by the ketone group. The ammonia eventually goes into the urea cycle.

Oxidative deamination occurs primarily on glutamic acid because glutamic acid was the end product of many transamination reactions.

Proteases break the peptide bonds of proteins back down to amino acids
Deaminases break the amino group off the amino acids, releasing ammonia. This toxic ammonia is converted to urea, and is excreted in urine.
The remainder of the amino acid (mostly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), and can be rearranged in cells to enter cellular respiration either as pyruvate, as acetyl CoA, or directly into the Krebs cycle.
Result: Still ~32-38 or so ATPs, but from proteins, not glucose!

Lipases break the glycerol head away from the fatty acids.
Glycerol is converted to an intermediate in glycolysis called "PGAL", and enters cellular respiration in the cytoplasm.
The fatty acid tails are converted to Acetyl CoA and enter the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria
Result: Still ~32-38 or so ATPs, but from fats, not glucose!

the keto acid

-6 NADH's are generated (3 per Acetyl CoA that enters)
-2 FADH2 is generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters)
-2 ATP are generated (1 per Acetyl CoA that enters)
-4 CO2's are released (2 per Acetyl CoA that enters)

The First Stage of Glycolysis---

•Glucose gets into the cell by facilitated diffusion
-•Glucose phosphorylated
-Glucose (6C) is broken down into 2 G3P;This requires two ATP's

The Second Stage of Glycolysis---

-•Molecules go through oxidation, production of ATP
-2 G3P (3C) are converted to 2 pyruvates-This creates 4 ATP's and 2 NADH's
The net ATP production of Glycolysis is 2 ATP's

The Oxidation of Pyruvate to form Acetyl CoA for Entry Into the Krebs Cycle

•PA goes through oxidation, reduction, decarboxylation
•PA is now Acetic acid (2C)
•Coenzyme A attaches to Acetic acid> Acetyl CoA

2 NADH's are generated (1 per pyruvate)
2 CO2 are released (1 per pyruvate)

•Acetyl CoA enters cycle and joins with oxaloacetic acid (4C)
•Citric Acid (6C) is formed > beginning molecule in cycle
•Citric acid goes through a series of oxidation, reduction, decarboxylation rxns to form oxaloacetic acid again.
•During this process, 1 ATP is formed
•Coenzymes NAD, FAD pick up hydrogens

• NAD and FAD drop off their hydrogens to the chain
• Hydrogens are split into electrons and protons
• Electrons are shuttled down/along the chain
• proton pumps are activated
• protons flow through special membrane channel that produces ATP

no oxygen needed, occurs in glycolysis and kreb’s cycle.

1. To selectively impede molecules from passing in/out of the cell.

2. To detect chemical signals from cells

3. To anchor the cell to other cells and the extracellular matrix.

intrinsic - protein spans the membrane

extrinsic - protein is on one side or the other of the membrane, or partway through.

-fat
-oxygen
-carbon dioxide
-steroids

concentration gradient

Possessing both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions.
i.e. phospholipids!

integral: embedded within bilayer, held in place by affinity of hydrophobic segments to the interior of the bilayer.
peripheral: more hydrophilic and located on membrane surface, linked noncovalently to polar head groups on lipids or to other hydrophilic protein regions.
lipid-anchored: hydrophilic as well, but covalently linked to lipid molecules embedded within the bilayer.

-Phospholipids: most abundant. includes phosphoglycerides and sphingolipids.
-Glycolipids: a lipid + a carbohydrate group. includes cerebrosides and gangliosides.
-sterols: eukaryotic cells only. includes cholesterol and phytosterols.

simple diffusion: unaided movement of a solute down its concentration gradient
facilitated diffusion: protein aided movement of a solute down its concentration gradient
active transport: protein aided movement of a solute AGAINST its concentration gradient

-symport: coupled transport in which both substances move the same direction
-antiport: coupled trasport in which substances move in opposite directions.

1.) 3 Na are taken from inside
2.) ATP phosphorylates alpha subunits
3.) A conformational change following phosphorylation expels 3 Na to outside
4.) Two K+ accepted from outside
5.) Dephosphorylation triggers conformational change
6.) 2 K+ expelled to inside; pump returns to initial state.

ATPase

moving in the same direction as sodium

moving in the opposite direction as sodium

Movement of solute

Semipermeable membrane

Osmotic pressure

Swell - cells have more solute activity then solution

(blood cells-hemolyze)

Preserve cell size - cells and solution have equal solute activity

Shrink - solution has more solute activity then cell

Kidneys in response to ADH

channel proteins

An aquaporin is a type of channel protein that allows the passage of water molecules

they hold onto their passengers and change shape in a way that shuttles them across the membrane.

the condition that allows some substances through more easily than others

Membranes are made of proteins bobbing in a fluid phospholipd bilayer. They are individually dispersed. The hydrophilic regions protrude and the hydrophobic regions are protected

hydrophobic interactions (weaker than covalent bonds)

at warm temperatures it makes the membrane less fluid and make it so that it takes a lower temperature for them to solidify

when membranes are solid their permeability changes and enzymes might stop working

membrane potential. An electrochemical gradient can also be established.

refers to the effect of an extracellular solution on the volume of the cells it surrounds.

a. specificity –
b. saturation –
transport maximum (Tm) = maximum number of molecules that can be moved per unit time
c. competition –

a. the molecule binds to the carrier on the side of the membrane with the higher concentration
b. when the molecule binds to the carrier it causes the carrier to change shape
c. the molecule is released on the opposite side of the membrane

ATP provides energy to open the carrier on the low-concentration side of the membrane

the ATP that provides the energy is hydrolyzed by the primary transport carrier

example: Na/K-ATPase (the sodium-potassium pump)

a.phosphorylation (ATP) increases the carrier’s affinity for Na+ (inside the cell where the Na concentration is lower)
b.3 intracellular Na+ bind to carrier
c.carrier changes shape and is simultaneously dephosphorylated
d. dephosphorylation decreases carrier’s affinity for Na+ and increases affinity for K+
e.3 Na+ are discharged into tissue fluid, 2 extracellular K+ bind to carrier (outside the cell where the K+ concentration is lower)
f.carrier changes shape again and releases 2 K+ on inside of cell

ATP works at one carrier to set up a concentration gradient for a molecule that will then be moved down its concentration gradient by a secondary carrier
the secondary carrier takes another molecule along with it (usually up its gradient)

- used to move large polar molecules, droplets of fluid, or microbes across membranes

1.endocytosis
2. exocytosis

a. phagocytosis - used for bacteria and debris
b. pinocytosis - used for engulfing fluid
c. receptor-mediated endocytosis - occurs after material to be transported binds to receptors on cell surface

a.

b.

c.

1.
2.
3.
4.

with inositol as polar head group, is one glycerophospholipid. In addition to being a membrane lipid, phosphatidylinositol has roles in cell signaling,

class of lipids derived from the aliphatic amino alcohol sphingosine. commonly believed to protect the cell surface against harmful environmental factors by forming a mechanically stable and chemically resistant outer leaflet of the plasma membrane lipid bilayer. Certain complex glycosphingolipids were found to be involved in specific functions, such as cell recognition and signaling. The first feature depends mainly on the physical properties of the sphingolipids, whereas signaling involves specific interactions of the glycan structures of glycosphingolipids with similar lipids present on neighboring cells or with proteins.

Phosphotidylcholine, sphinogomyelin, phosphotidylserine, phosphotidylethanolamine

specificity

glycocalyx

Endoplasmic reticulum

Tight (occluding)

Anchoring

Connexins

Cytoplasm; rpugh endoplasmic reticulum

Lipid; detoxification

Protein; ribosomes

Through vesicles formed by budding of the ER membrane

To modify proteins (adding sugar groups) from the ER and repackaging them for delivery to lysosomes, the plasma membrane, or exterior of the cell

Lysosomes

-maintain a pH of 5 inside them

To renew the cell's own components by breaking them down and releasing molecular building blocks into the cytosol, or to digest injured or dying cels

oxidative, fats, detoxify

cytosol

Stored Food Substances, Pigments, Crystals

cytoskeleton, microtubules.

ribosomes; exception is a few mitochondrial proteins that are synthesized on ribosomes inside the organelles.

Gated, transmembrane, and vesicular transport

Gated transport; proteins moving from the cytosol to the nucleus are transported through NUCLEAR PORE COMPLEXES. Proteins do not need to unfold.

Bidirectionally; Active transport, GTP required. Free diffusion of smaller molecules.

Are not membrane bound.

ribosomes

Nucleolus

Membrane-associated; make GLYCOSYLATED proteins which are segregated from the cytosol.

Free or Membrane-nonassociated

recpetor-mediated transport, requires ATP.

Beta oxidation; acetyl coA and hydrogen peroxide.

nuclear envelope

Heterophagy

autophagy

1. microfilaments
2. intermediate filaments
3. microtublues

1. cell movement
2. support and strength for cell
3. phagocytosis
4. cytokinesis
5. cell to cell and cell to ECM adherence
6. changes in cell shape