Psych Test 5

Freudian-- unconscious mind
Behavioristic-- determined by experience
Phenomenological-- conscious mind

- Sigmund Freud
- 3 awareness levels:
-- conscious- working memory
-- preconscious- easily brought to mind, "long term memory"
-- unconscious- CANNOT be broup to conscious awareness de to active processes which keep them out

-- id- pleasure principle, no regard for others; confined to unconscious
-- ego- reality principle, meet one's needs with consideration for others (meet both id's and superego's needs)
-- superego- ideal principle, moral conscience
- id has access to only unconscious; ego/superego have access to all 3 awareness levels

- in unconscious mind, therefore inaccessible to person/therapist
- result from work in reconciling id's sexual, aggressive, or morally unacceptable impulses
- may happen to bubble to surface via slips of the tongue, dreams, jokes, anxiety = Ego Defense Mechanisms

- to reduce id-superego conflict
- may involve self-deception, distortion of reality
- learned during early childhood
- include: denial, repression, projection, displacement, sublimation, reaction formation, rationalization, regression

barring an anxiety provoking external stimulus from awareness

barring an anxiety provoking internal stimulus from awareness

placing unacceptable thoughts or impulses in yourself onto someone else

taking out impulses on a safer substitute

- channeling unacceptable impulses in a socially acceptable way
- a healthy outlet

converting the unacceptable impulse into its opposite

supplying a logical or rational excuse for a shortcoming

returning to a previous more childish state of development

- child focus on mouth to get pleasure b/c of its requirement for nursing
- traumatic weaning from this initial oral pleasure may lead to: smoking, drinking, nail biting, pencil chewing

- pleasure based on eliminating and retaining bowel movements or gaining control over them
- conflicts during this stage may result in: obsession with cleanliness, perfection, and control (anal retentive), or they may become messy and disorganized slobs (anal expulsive)

- boys and girls learn differences between genders and become aware of similarities/differences between them and their parents
- boys attracted to mothers (Oedipus complex) & girls attracted to fathers (Electra complex)
- girls go through "penis envy"
- conflicts resolved by child identifying with same-sex parent
- unresolved conflicts manifest in overindulging/avoiding sex or weak/confused sexual identity

- sexual interest is repressed
- play mostly with same sex peers
- think "cooties!!!"

- sexual urges awakened
- through prior resolution of conflicts of earlier stages, healthy adolescents are able to direct sexual urges onto opposite sex peers with primary focus of pleasure being the genitals

- case study interviews were unrepresentative sample (mostly unmarried upperclass women from Vienna with mental disorders)
- notes not written during interview, but days later
- untestable definitions of psychoanalysis
- conflicts occur in unconscious mind so variables which may generate/reduce conflicts have to operate on unconscious level (basically, we have no idea of knowing them)

explain consistent behavior across situations in terms of learned reactions to external stimuli

- Albert Bandura
- given person's behavior both influenced by and is influencing person's internal factors (their skills, feelings, ideas, genetics) and their environmental situation (other people's skills, feelings, ideas, behaviors) around them
- each of the 3 can impact and be impacted by the others
- ex) you hate your job (internal factor), annoying co-worker criticizes you (envi. situation, external factor), you argue with them and say you hate them and hate working there (your behavior), then more people criticize you more (envi.) which makes you angry (internal).... etc.

- Julian Rotter
- one's sense regarding underlying causes of events in their life, whether outcomes are controlled by them or by external forces
- internal/external locus of control
- behavior determined by life's rewards/punishments so people come to hold beliefs about what guides their behavior and outcomes
- internal locus seems to be more psychologically healthy-- achievement oriented, but this may lead to anxiety/depression due to competition, opportunities to succeed, etc.
- people with external locus are freed from burden of responsibility and lead easy-going, relaxed, happy lives

- Walter Mischel
- focused on roles of: competencies, encoding strategies, expectancies, subjective values, and self-regulatory systems in determining behavior
- behaviors will be determined by how we each answer:
--- What can I do?
--- How do I see this?
--- What will happen?
--- What is it worth to me?
--- How can I achieve this?

- "What can I do?"
- a wide variety of skilled, adaptive behaviors, including both actions and mental activities

- "How do I see this?"
- the perception and interpretation of events via selective attention and personal constructs which can be thought of as useful concepts through which we view events in the world, guide perceptions and behaviors and filter perceptions, memories, and expectations

- "What will happen?"
- thoughts and ideas concerning and predicting the outcomes of environmental events and personal behaviors

- "What is it worth to me?"
- the weighted preferences of our desired or expected outcomes

- "How can I achieve this?"
- self-imposed goals and consequences which govern behavior in the absence or in spite of social or situational constraints

agonists- facilitate neurotransmitter activity
antagonists- impair " "

- biogenic amine
- depends on enzymatic degradation by acetylcholinase to terminate signal
- in brain, nervous system, nerve-muscle junction
- sensory info learning, memory wakefulness

- biogenic amine
- catecholamine
- voluntary motor movements, attention, behavior control, reward, pleasure, learning, memory, hormonal response

- biogenic amine
- catecholamine
- attention, arousal, mood, wakefulness

- biogenic amine
- indolamine
- mood, aggression, wakefulness, feeding, sexual desire, attention, body temperature, blood pressure

- amino acid
- primary excitatory neurotransmitter
- involved in every brain function
- learning, memory, long-term synaptic signaling changes

- amino acid
- primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
- in ever brain function
- learning, memory, fear/anxiety

- main source of ACh for ocrtex/limbic sytem structures like hippocampus and amygdala
- small group of related structures that work together
- structures include: nucelus, basalis, medial septum, diagonal band of Broca, substantia innominata

- main sources of DA
- SN's DA to motor system- basal ganglia
- VTA's DA to limbic/cortex systems- prefrontal cortex
- both produce same transmitter but dont have same cells
- SN got its name because as person gets older, it gets a dark pigment that changes its appearance to black

- brain and spinal cord's source for NE
- reticular activating system
- arousal, attending to novel stimuli or sudden changes in environment

- raphe is Latin for seam
- main source of 5HT
- reticular activating system
- arousal, novelty, motivation

- attacks brain regions involved in memory, reasoning, language
- 5 million Americans
- after age 60
- Dr. Alois Alzheimer, 1906
- beta amyloid plaques (dark silvery stains) and tangled nerve fibers (neurofibrillary tangles)
- beta amyloid in plaques are toxic to neurons, widespread cell death in areas of memory, limbic, temporal, frontal cortices
- BF cells 1st to die => low ACh levels
- causes of AD unknown
- primary sensory cortices, motor cortex, cerebellum are spared

- risk factors: age, family history
- early onset is inherited
- late onset not inherited
- cardio diseases positively correlated: high blood pressure, high cholesterol, low levels folic acid
- physical, mental, social activites may protect against AD

- early forgetfulness: inability to recall events, people's names, solve simple math problems
- middle stage: forget simple tasks like grooming or dressing selves, cannot think clearly, cannot recognize familiar people or places or things, problems communicating, less able to speak, understand, read, or write
- later stage: emotionally uninhibited, anxious/aggressive, wander from home and lose way
- eventually need complete care
- live 8-10 yrs after diagnosed, some may survive 20 yrs

- no known treatment
- for early treatment: tracrine (Cognex), donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (Exelon), galantamine (Razadyne)
- these delay progession by making more ACh and BF cells based on what's still there but eventually there's no more BF ACh-producing cells left for the drugs to work on
- moderate/severe AD: memantine (Namenda)- NMDA receptor antagonist to slow cell death
- hormones like Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) protect against cell death by beta amyloid but are too large to cross blood brain barrier

- disturbances of thought, attention, perception, emotion, motor impairments, withdrawal from reality: all impair normal functioning to take care of self
- brain damage and DA overactivity (from VTA)
- larger ventricles in brain suggest diffuse neuronal damage and cell loss
- brain metabolic activity during psychotic episode and frontal loves are lower than controls
- more DA D2-like receptors (D2, D3, and D4 receptors are in D2-like family)
- long term use of DA-stimulants to slow down reuptake like amphetamine/cocaine, can induce schizo-like psychosis
- hallucinogens like psilocybin (%HT agonist0 supper Da overactivity in schizo hallucinations, since stimulation of forebrain 5HT receptors increase DA release
- chronic is inheritable although specific gene unknown; in general population 0.7%, likelihood 2nd identical twin would have it if 1st has it 48%

- from loss of dopamine-producing brain cells in SN
- symptoms::
--- tremor: trembling hands, arms, legs, jaw, face
--- rigidity: stiff limbs/torso
--- bradykinesia: slow movement
--- postural instability: impaired balance/coordination
- early symptoms gradual, unnoticeable
- difficulty walking/talking/swallowing. paralysis
- over age 50; symptoms after 90% SN neurons die; over lifetime
- motor system compensate for low DA by increasing branching of terminal in surviving cells and increasing sensitivity to DA receptors

- no cure
- levodopa w/ carbidopa to relieve symptoms: carbid delay conversion of levo until reaches brain where neurons use levo to make DA; bradykinesia and rigidity respond best
- bromocriptine, pergolide, pramipexole, ropinirole: mimic DA. May result in needing higher doses and immunity to the drug over time
- surgery or deep brain stimulation may be appropriate

- electrodes implanted into brain, connected to an externally programmed pulse generator
- reduces need for levodooa so decreases involuntary movements called dyskinesias which are side effect of levodopa
- alleviates fluctuations of symptoms, reduces tremors, slow movements, gait problems
- requires careful programming
- lesion surgeries like thalamotomy/pallidotomy reduce tremor, but effects of surgery subside with time

- persistent, upsetting thoguhts (obsessions) in people who use rituals (compulsipons) to reduce anxiety these thoughts produce
- no specific genes
- when OCD adult has kids there is slightley increased risk for child
- inheritable OCD but not specific symptoms so child and parent have different set of Os and Cs
- no defined cause
- problems in communication btwn frontal cortex and basal ganglia
- antipsychotic meds for schizo, though serotonergic antidepressants (SSRIs) more common
- PET scans show OCD brain regions return to normal after taking serotonin or getting psychotherapy

- tics: repetitive, involuntary movements and vocalizations
- simple tics: eye blinking, facial grimacing, shoulder shrugigng, head/shoulder jerking
- simple vocal tics: throat-clearing, sniffing, grunting
- complex tics: distinct coordinated movements, may appear purposeful-- facial grimacing w/ combined head twist or shoulder shrug, touching objects, punching oneself
- complex vocal tics:
--- coprolalia: cursing
--- echolalia: repeating words/phrase of others
- tics may be preceded by urge in affected muscle group: premonitory urge
- may need to complete tic in certain way or certain number of times
- OCD and TS sometimes comorbid, TS and ADHD sometimes comorbid
- tics worse with excitement/anxiety, better during calm activities and during sleep

- inherited
- at-risk males likely to have tics and at-risk females to have O-C symptoms
- tics usually not severe enough to need medicine
- antipsychotics for tic suppresssion but have side effect of tardive dyskinesia (spontaneous uncontrollable writhing movements)
- ^ occurs b/c D2's receptors are overly sensitive to dopamine due to constant blockade; avoided by novel antipsychotics which block D4 receptors found in cortex but not motor system, but also block serotonin 5HT3 receptors

- multi-faceted;
- low levels of metabolites of monoamines (DA, NE, 5HT) in cerebropspinal fluid => dev. antidepressants

- selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), tricyclics (selective for NE), monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs which rase levels of DA, NE, and 5HT)
- relief after 10 days-2 weeks, max effects at 6 weeks
- not drugs of abuse
- not habit-forming
- do not increase release of transmitters they affect
- increase available transmitter levels by blocking reuptake or prevent degradation by MAO
- for severe cases, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)-- anesthesized beforehand, 2-3 sessions/wk
- ECT however raises monoamine levels in CSF

- group of disorders that cause disturbances in electrical signaling
- glutamate has key role
- seizures
- hallmark: over time, seizures become more frequent/severe due to overactivity of glutamate system
- NMDA glutamate receptor: triggering long lasting changes in signaling effectiveness at synapse known as long-term potentiation (LTP)
- NMDA receptor and LTP are misappropriated and play role in increasing spread, duration, and intensity of seizures
- manageable when treated, but fatal when have long-lasting intense seizure

- reflect in some way misappropriation of LTP, but really may be due to under active GABA system in limbic areas of emotion and in amygdala
- amygadal for learning emotional significance of stimuli (fear)
- chem or electric stimulation of amygdala triggers fear/anxiety
- amygdala has high levels of benzodiazepine binding sites on GABA receptors found in it
- under normal conditions, natural benzodiazepine-like compounds reduce fear by increasing GABA activity in amygdala
- if GABA is under active, LTP may occur and increase fear causing disorders like generalized anxiety disorder or panic attacks
- for phobias, underactive GABA lead to LTP to form unnecessary fear of an object