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565 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
why is the knee joint capsule incomplete posteriolaterally?
|
to allow for passage of the popliteus tendon
|
|
what is the proximal attachment of the joint capsule of the knee?
|
superior to the femoral condyles
|
|
what is the distal attachment of the joint capsule of the knee?
|
below the tibial plateau
|
|
how many ligaments reinforce the knee?
|
7
|
|
what are the five intrinsic ligaments of the knee?
|
patellar ligament
fibular / lateral collateral tibial / medial collateral arcuate popliteal oblique popliteal |
|
what are the two extrinsic ligaments of the knee?
|
anterior cruciate
posterior cruciate |
|
are the extrinsic ligaments of the knee intra or extra capsular?
|
intra-capsular
|
|
what is the patellar ligament continuous with?
|
the quadriceps tendon
|
|
what are the attachments of the patella ligament?
|
apex of patella
tibial tuberosity |
|
which ligament serves as the anterior portion of the joint capsule of the knee?
|
patellar ligament
|
|
what is the shape of the fibular collateral ligament?
|
round
cord-like |
|
what are the two menisci of the knee?
|
medial meniscus
lateral meniscus |
|
what is the function of the menisci of the knee?
|
fibrocartilage is shock absorbing
improves congruency of joint |
|
what are the four communicating bursae of the knee?
|
gastrocnemius bursa
anserine bursa popliteus bursa suprapatellar bursa |
|
what are the attachments of the patellar tendon/ligament?
|
apex of patella
tibial tuberosity |
|
which ligament attaches at the lateral femoral epicondyle and the head of the fibula?
|
fibular (lateral) collateral
|
|
what are the attachments of the tibial (medial) collateral ligament?
|
medial femoral epicondyle
medial tibial condyle |
|
which ligament attached at the middle of the posterior joint capsule of the knee to the expansion of the semimembranosus tendon?
|
oblique popliteal
|
|
what are the attachments of the arcuate popliteal ligament?
|
posterior surface of the knee joint
fibular head |
|
what is the function of the fibular collateral ligament?
|
prevents lateral rotation during extension
lateral stability |
|
what is the function of the tibial collateral ligament?
|
medial stability
|
|
what structure of the knee is attached to the tibial collateral ligament?
|
the medial meniscus
|
|
what is the function of the oblique popliteal ligament?
|
reinforces knee joint capsule posteriorly
|
|
what is the function of the arcuate popliteal ligament?
|
reinforces knee joint capsule posteriorly
|
|
what are the attachments of the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee?
|
posterior lateral condyle of the femur
intercondylar area of the tibia |
|
what is the function of the anterior cruciate ligament of the knee?
|
prevents hyperextension
prevents posterior displacement of femur prevents anterior displacement of the tibia |
|
which ligament of the knee attaches at the medial condyle of the femur (anteriorly) and the intercondylar area of the tibia (posteriorly)?
|
the posterior cruciate ligament
|
|
what is the function of the posterior cruciate ligament of the knee?
|
prevents hyperflexion
prevents anterior displacement of the femur prevents posterior displacement of the tibia |
|
which is stronger, the PCL or ACL of the knee?
|
the PCL
|
|
what structure would you find between the skin and the anterior surface of the patella?
|
subcutaneous prepatellar bursa
|
|
where would you find the subcutaneous infrapatellar bursa?
|
between the skin and the tibial tuberosity
|
|
what would you find between the femur and the tendon of quadriceps femoris?
|
suprapatellar quadriceps bursa
|
|
where would you find the infrapatellar bursa?
|
between the tibia and the patellar tendon/ligament
|
|
what structure would you find between the lateral tibial condyle and the popliteus tendon?
|
popliteus bursa
|
|
where would you find the anserine bursa?
|
separating the tendons of sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus from the tibia and tibial collateral ligament
|
|
what would you find deep to the tendon of the medial head of gastrocnemius?
|
gastrocnemius bursa
|
|
where would you find the semimembranosus bursa?
|
between the medial head of gastrocnemius and the tendon of semimembranosus
|
|
what is a communicating bursa?
|
a bursa that is channeled between the internal aspect of the joint capsule
|
|
what forms the crural fascia?
|
the blending of the superficial fascia of the thigh and the fascia lata at the knee
|
|
where would you find the crural fascia?
|
between subcutaneous tissue and muscle
|
|
what is the proximal attachment of the crural fascia?
|
continuous with the fascia lata
|
|
what is the distal attachment of the crural fascia?
|
continuous with periosteum of tibia
|
|
what forms the superior extensor retinaculum?
|
thickening of the crural fascia between fibula and tibia
|
|
what is formed by the crural fascia thickening between the calcaneus, medial malleolous and plantar aponerosis?
|
inferior extensor retinaculum
|
|
what three functions does the crural fascia serve?
|
compression of muscles leads to efficient contraction
assists with venous return retinaculum prevents tendon bulge |
|
list the four muscles of the anterior compartment of the leg
|
tibialis anterior
extensor digitorum longus extensor hallucis longus fibularis tertius |
|
what is the common action of the anterior compartment of the leg?
|
dorsiflexion
|
|
what is the action of tibialis anterior?
|
dorsiflexion
inversion |
|
what is the location of extensor digitorum longus?
|
tendons are between fibularis tertius and extensor hallucis longus
|
|
what is the action of extensor digitorum longus?
|
dorsiflexion
extends toes |
|
what muscle would you find between tibialis anterior and extensor digitorum longus?
|
extensor hallucis longus
|
|
what is the action of extensor hallucis longus?
|
dorsiflexion
extends big toe |
|
which muscle is the most lateral of the anterior compartment of the leg?
|
fibularis tertius
|
|
what is the action of fibularis tertius?
|
dorsiflexion
eversion |
|
what is the name given to the grouping of gastrocnemius and soleus?
|
triceps surae
|
|
which three muscles make up the superficial posterior compartment of the leg?
|
gastrocnemius
soleus plantaris |
|
what is the common insertion for the muscles of the superficial posterior compartment of the leg?
|
calcaneus via calcaneal tendon
|
|
which superficial posterior leg muscle is the most superior?
|
gastrocnemius
|
|
what joints does gastrocnemius cross?
|
ankle and knee
|
|
where would you find the soleus muscle?
|
deep to gastrocnemius
|
|
how would you isolate soleus?
|
bend the knee
resisted plantarflexion |
|
what is the clinical relevance of soleus?
|
it is an endurance / postural muscle
|
|
what is the action of plantaris?
|
weak plantar flexion
weak knee flexion |
|
what would you find between calcaneus and the achilles tendon?
|
retrocalcaneal bursa
|
|
where would you find the calcaneal bursa?
|
between the skin and the achilles tendon
|
|
what is the size of the deep posterior compartment muscles compared to the superficial?
|
small
|
|
the muscles of which compartment of the leg pass deep to the flexor retinaculum?
|
deep posterior
|
|
which muscle in the deep posterior compartment of the leg is the only one not to cross the ankle deep to the flexor retinaculum?
|
popliteus
|
|
name of the muscles of the deep posterior compartment from anterior to posterior
|
tibialis posterior
flexor digitorum longus flexor hallucis longus |
|
what is the main action of popliteus
|
it unlocks the knee
|
|
what is the location of popliteus?
|
floor of the popliteal fossa
deep to plantaris |
|
which deep posterior leg muscle is the deepest?
|
tibialis posterior
|
|
what is the action of tibialis posterior?
|
plantar flexion
inversion |
|
what is the action of flexor digitorum longus (lower leg)
|
toe flexion
plantar flexion |
|
where would you find flexor hallucis longus?
|
posterior to flexor digitorum longus and tibialis posterior
|
|
what is the action of flexor hallucis longus?
|
big toe flexion
plantar flexion |
|
what is the clinical significance of flexor hallucis longus?
|
has a significant role in movement that require a powerful toe off
|
|
describe the articulation of the proximal tibiofibular joint
|
lateral condyle of tibia
head of fibula |
|
what type of joint is the proximal tibiofibular joint?
|
plane
|
|
when does movement occur in the proximal tibiofibular joint?
|
slight movement during dorsi/plantar flexion
slight movement during inversion/eversion |
|
what type of joint is the distal tibiofibular joint?
|
fibrous syndesmosis
|
|
name the ligaments of the proximal tibiofibular joint
|
anterior tibiofibular
posterior tibiofibular |
|
name the ligaments of the distal tibiofibular joint
|
interosseus
anterior tibiofibular posterior tibiofibular |
|
what is the name for the ankle joint?
|
talocrural joint
mortise joint |
|
what type of joint is the talocrural joint?
|
hinge type synovial
|
|
describe the articulation of the talocrural joint
|
convex trochlea of talus
concave tibia and fibula |
|
describe the shape of the articular capsule of the talocrural joint
|
it is thinner anteriorly and posteriorly
|
|
what are the ligaments supporting the talocrural joint?
|
medial/deltoid collateral
anterior talofibular posterior talofibular calcaneofibular |
|
what is the primary movement at talocrural joint?
|
dorsi/plantar flexion
|
|
what are the attachments of the medial / deltoid ligament of talocrural joint?
|
P: medial malleolus
D: talus, calcaneous, navicular |
|
what is the function of the medial / deltoid ligament of talocrural joint?
|
stabilizes the ankle during eversion to prevent dislocation
|
|
where would you find the anterior talofibular ligament?
|
lateral ankle
|
|
what are the attachments of the anterior talofibular ligament?
|
talus
fibula |
|
what is the function of the anterior talofibular ligament?
|
lateral support for the ankle
|
|
where would you find the posterior talofibular ligament?
|
lateral ankle
|
|
what are the attachments of the posterior talofibular ligament?
|
talus to fibula
|
|
what is the function of the posterior talofibular ligament?
|
lateral support for the ankle
|
|
where would you find the calcaneofibular ligament?
|
lateral ankle
|
|
what are the attachments of the calcaneofibular ligament?
|
calcaneus
fibula |
|
what is the function of the calcaneofibular ligament?
|
lateral support for the ankle
|
|
which of the talocrural ligaments is the weakest and most often sprained?
|
the lateral ligaments
anterior talofibular ligament most often injured |
|
what are the four factors affecting ankle stability?
|
tendons / retinacula
strong medial and lateral ligaments shape of the bones increases congruency position of the trochlea |
|
list the four main tarsal joints
|
subtalar
talocalcaneonavicular calcaneocuboid transverse tarsal |
|
what motions create supination of the foot?
|
plantar flexion
inversion adduction |
|
what motions create pronation of the foot?
|
dorsiflexion
eversion abduction |
|
what joints are responsible for supination and pronation of the foot?
|
the tarsal bones (together)
|
|
which tarsal joint is considered the anatomical joint of the ankle?
|
subtalar
|
|
what type of joint is the subtalar joint?
|
plane
|
|
what articulates at the subtalar joint?
|
talus
calcaneus |
|
what movements occur at the subtalar joint?
|
inversion
eversion |
|
list the ligaments of the subtalar joint
|
medial talocalcaneal
lateral talocalcaneal posterior talocalcaneal interosseus talocalcaneal |
|
what type of joint is the talocalcaneonavicular joint?
|
ball and socket
|
|
what is the articulation of the talocalcaneonavicular joint?
|
head of talus
navicular calcaneus |
|
name the ligaments of the talocalcaneonavicular joint
|
plantar calcaneonavicular ligament
|
|
what ligament attaches the sustentaculum tali of the calcaneus to the navicular bone?
|
plantar calcaneonavicular ligament
|
|
what movements occur at the talocalcaneonavicular joint?
|
gliding
rotary |
|
what type of joint is the calcaneocuboid joint?
|
plane
|
|
what is the articulation of the calcaneocuboid joint?
|
calcaneous
cuboid |
|
name the ligaments of the calcaneocuboid joint
|
plantar calcaneocuboid
long plantar ligament |
|
what movements occur at the calcaneocuboid joint?
|
inversion
eversion |
|
what forms the transverse tarsal joint?
|
a combination of talocalcaneonavicular and calcaneocuboid joint
|
|
the transverse tarsal joint allows for what movements?
|
inversion
adduction eversion abduction |
|
how many tarsal bones are there?
|
7
|
|
name the tarsal bones
|
talus, calcaneous, navicular, cuboid, medial, intermediate and lateral cuneiforms
|
|
which bones make up the hind foot?
|
talus
calcaneous |
|
which bones makes up the mid foot
|
nvicular
cuboid cuneiforms |
|
which bones make up the forefoot?
|
metatarsals
phalanges |
|
what type of joints are the tarsometatarsal joints?
|
plane
|
|
which joint is the articulation between the distal tarsal bones and the base of the metatarsals?
|
tarsometatarsal joints
|
|
name the supporting ligaments of the tarsometatarsal joints
|
dorsal
plantar interosseous |
|
what type of capsule is the articular capsule of the tarsometatarsal joints?
|
fibrous
|
|
what type of movements occur at the tarsometatarsal joints?
|
gliding
sliding |
|
what type of joints are the intermetatarsal joints?
|
plane
|
|
which joint is the articulation between the bases of adjacent metatarsals?
|
intermetatarsal joints
|
|
what do the intermetatarsals share with the tarsametatarsal joints?
|
a fibrous joint capsule
|
|
name the supporting ligaments of the intermetatarsal joints
|
dorsal
plantar interosseous |
|
what do the intermetatarsal joints allow the foot to do?
|
conform to uneven surfaces
|
|
what type of joints are the metatarsal phalangeal joints?
|
condyloid
|
|
list the articulations of the metatarsal phalangeal joints
|
between metatarsal heads and bases of proximal phalanges
|
|
list the supporting ligaments of the metatarsal phalangeal joints
|
collateral
plantar |
|
what type of joints are the interphalangeal joints of the toes?
|
hinge
|
|
what type of articular capsule is found at the interphalangeal joints?
|
fibrous
|
|
list the supporting ligaments of interphalangeal joints
|
collateral
plantar |
|
what are the three arches of the foot?
|
medial longitudinal
lateral transverse |
|
what structure of the foot improves weight bearing and the adaptability of the foot?
|
the arches
|
|
what maintains the arches of the foot?
|
the shape of the bones
strong plantar ligaments and aponeurosis muscles attached to bones of the arches |
|
what function of the foot is supported by pronation?
|
shock absorption
|
|
what function of the foot is served by supination?
|
propulsion
|
|
list the order of bones that handle weight transmission in the lower leg/foot.
|
tibia - talus - calcaneous - metatarsal heads (2 through5), sesamoid bones of first digit
|
|
what makes up the medial longitudinal arch?
|
calcaneous
talus navicular cuneiforms metatarsals 1 - 3 |
|
which is higher, the medial longitudinal arch or the lateral longitudinal arch?
|
medial
|
|
which muscles support the medial longitudinal arch?
|
tibialis anterior
tibialis posterior fibularis longus |
|
which bones make up the lateral longitudinal arch?
|
calcaneous
cuboid metatarsals 4 - 5 |
|
what happens to the lateral longitudinal arch when standing?
|
it rests on the ground
|
|
which bones form the transverse arch of the foot?
|
cuboid
cuneiforms metatarsal bases |
|
which muscles support the transverse arch of the foot?
|
fibularis longus
|
|
what is another name of the spring ligament of the foot?
|
plantar calcaneonavicular
|
|
which arch of the foot does the spring ligament support?
|
medial longitudinal
|
|
which ligament supports the lateral arch of the foot?
|
long plantar
|
|
what is the deep fascia of the foot continuous with?
|
fascia of the leg
inferior extensor retinaculum |
|
describe the plantar aponeurosis
|
longitudinal
dense, fibrous connective tissue |
|
where would you find the plantar aponeurosis?
|
extending the entire length of the plantar surface of the foot
|
|
what is the proximal attachment of the plantar aponeurosis?
|
calcaneous
|
|
what is the distal attachment of the plantar aponeurosis?
|
digital tendons
|
|
what divides the foot into the medial, lateral and central compartments?
|
vertical septa formed by the plantar aponeurosis
|
|
why is the plantar aponeurosis clinically significant?
|
contracture can lead to plantar fasciitis
|
|
what are the functions of the plantar aponeurosis?
|
protects plantar aspect from injury
helps support longitudinal arches holds parts of the foot together |
|
what are the actions of extensor digitorum brevis and extensor hallucis brevis?
|
assists their longus counterpart
|
|
list the muscles of the first layer of the foot
|
abductor hallucis
flexor digitorum brevis abductor digiti minimi |
|
list the muscles of the second layer of the foot
|
lumbricals
quadratus plantae |
|
list the muscles in the third layer of the foot
|
adductor hallucis
flexor digiti minimi brevis flexor hallucis brevis |
|
list the muscles in the fourth layer of the foot
|
plantar interossei
dorsal interossei |
|
what is the action of the plantar interossei?
|
adduct digits 2-4
flex MTP joints |
|
what is the action of the dorsal interossei of the foot?
|
abduction of digits 2-4
flex MTP joints |
|
how many plantar interossei muscles are there?
|
3
|
|
how many dorsal interossei muscles are there?
|
4
|
|
which muscles' tendons would you find in the 4th muscle layer of the foot?
|
tibialis anterior
tibialis posterior fibularis longus |
|
what is the shape of the popliteal fossa?
|
diamond
|
|
what is the superomedial border of the popliteal fossa?
|
semimembranous
semitendinosus |
|
what is the superolateral border of the popliteal fossa?
|
biceps femoris
|
|
what is the inferiomedial border of the popliteal fossa?
|
medial head of gastrocnemius
|
|
what is the inferiolateral border of the popliteal fossa?
|
lateral head of gastrocnemius
|
|
what is the roof of the popliteal fossa?
|
popliteal fascia
|
|
what is the floor of the popliteal fossa?
|
femur
popliteus |
|
what happens to material that the lysosomes don't recognize?
|
it remains undigested inside the phagosome
|
|
what are the systemic manifestations of chronic inflammation?
|
elevated WBC count
low grade fever pain |
|
what is a residual body?
|
a phagosome containing undigested and undigestable substances
|
|
is acute inflammation ever useful?
|
yes
if it resolves the injury, localizes and destroys the injurious agent and the exudates carry away the debris |
|
what are the two patterns of reversible cell injury?
|
organelle/cell swelling and intracellular accumulation
|
|
what two ways can acute inflammation be harmful?
|
if it incites an autoimmune response
if it is over reactive |
|
what leads to organelle/cell swelling?
|
failure of the Na/K pump to maintain the electrochemical gradient. Water flows into the cell due to osmotic imbalance
|
|
is chronic inflammation ever useful?
|
no
|
|
what are the three categories of intracellular accumulation?
|
normal endogenous substances
abnormal endogenous substances exogenous substances |
|
what are exudates?
|
fluids that exude from injured tissues or capillaries
|
|
when too much fat is produced or there is a metabolic dysfunction, this is what kind of intracellular accumulation?
|
normal endogenous substances
|
|
what is the common result of exudates?
|
edema
|
|
if the cell contains certain things that can't be metabolized, what category of intracellular accumulation is this?
|
abnormal endogenous
|
|
what are the causes of edema due to injury?
|
vasodilation
increased membrane permeability inability of the lymphatic system to remover IF at the same rate that it is exuding from the capillaries |
|
if the cell contains substances from an outside source that can't be digested/metabolized, what type of intracellular accumulation is this?
|
exogenous
|
|
what are the five type types of exudates?
|
serous
fibrinous membranous purulent hemorrhagic |
|
irreversible cell injury usually leads to what process?
|
autolysis
|
|
describe serous exudate
|
low in protein
it is the initial post-injury exudate |
|
what happens during autolysis?
|
the lysosome ruptures and the hydrolytic enzymes are released into the cytoplasm
|
|
which type of exudate is high in fibrinogen and glues structures together and prevents the spread of infection?
|
fibrinous
|
|
is irreversible cell damage and/or autolysis always bad? If not, give an example.
|
no, sometimes the lysosomes clear away debris and tissue continues to function, such as tissue regression of the uterus after pregnancy.
|
|
describe membranous exudate
|
contains necrotic cells
|
|
What is a mixture?
|
the physical combination of 2 or more substances
|
|
what type of exudate contains pus and sometimes needs to be surgically removed?
|
purulent
|
|
what are the two categories of mixtures?
|
homogenous and heterogenous
|
|
describe hemorrhagic exudate
|
it contains blood
it happens when blood vessels rupture or when red blood cells more into tissue spaces |
|
what are the two components of a solution?
|
the solvent and the solute
|
|
what are the common contents of ALL exudates?
|
water
inorganic compounds (electrolytes) small organic molecules (glucose, amino acids) |
|
what is kinetic energy?
|
the movement of particles
|
|
if exudates are not removed, what is the outcome?
|
the inflammation will not be resolved
|
|
what kind of mixture is whole blood?
|
a suspension
|
|
describe the collagen fibre arrangement of tendons
|
parallel
long bundles |
|
what kind of mixture is blood plasma?
|
a colloid
|
|
what is a tendon sheath?
|
a connective tissue that wraps around a tendon in areas of high stress
|
|
what kind of mixture is blood serum?
|
a transparent solution
|
|
what is the major physiological characteristic of tendons?
|
very high tensile strength
|
|
what seven components are present in whole blood?
|
water
cells protein glucose amino acids urea ions |
|
what two things make tendons and tendon sheaths susceptible to injury?
|
friction
hypovascularity |
|
what is missing from blood plasma that is present in whole blood?
|
cells
|
|
what are located between tendons and bones and act as cushions to decrease friction?
|
fat pads
bursae |
|
what is missing from blood serum that is present in whole blood?
|
cells and proteins
|
|
what is tenosynovitis?
|
inflammation of an ensheathed tendon
|
|
Electrolytes are most vital to which two types of tissue?
|
muscle and nerve
|
|
what does hypovascular mean?
|
decreased capillaries
reduced oxygen and nutrient supply |
|
most salts disolve in water, but some don't. What happens to them and give one example in the body.
|
They form rocks or crystals. An example is calcium phosophate which forms bone
|
|
what does poor perfusion mean to injured tissue?
|
increased healing time
|
|
What is the definition of an isotonic solution?
|
a solution in which the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid is equal to the solute concentration of the cytoplasm
|
|
describe the tendon sheath
|
inner and outer layer
fluid between the layers |
|
What is the definition of a hypertonic solution?
|
a solution in which the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid is greater than the solute concentration of the cytoplasm
|
|
what is tendonitis?
|
inflammatory condition affecting a tendon or musculotendinous unit
|
|
What is the definition of a hypotonic solution?
|
a solution in which the solute concentration in the extracellular fluid is less than the solute concentration of the cytoplasm
|
|
what are the two common causes of tendonitis?
|
age/degeneration
tissue fatigue (RSI) |
|
what happens to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?
|
the cell will shrink and may crenate
|
|
what are possible causes of tendinitis? (5)
|
overuse
compression of tendon by other structures joint calcification joint hypermobility postural misalignment |
|
what happens to a cell placed in a hypotonic solution?
|
the cell will swell and may undergo lysis
|
|
what are the long term consequences of tendonitis?
|
muscle weakness
degeneration and fibrosis of the tendon decreased range of motion |
|
what are the two categories of solutes?
|
polar substances and electrolytes
|
|
why does tendonitis tend to recur?
|
repetitive use
inadequate recovery time |
|
The body is divided into which two generalized cellular compartments?
|
intracellular and extracellular
|
|
describe the use of hydrotherapy for tendonitis
|
acute: cryotherapy
sub acute: contrast chronic: deep moist heat |
|
which fluid is contained in the intracellular compartment?
|
cytoplasm / cytosol / intracellular fluid
|
|
what are the treatment aims for tendonitis?
|
maintain mobility and tissue health
prevent reinjury |
|
intracellular fluid represents approximately how much volume of overall body fluid?
|
25 liters
|
|
what are the short term treatment aims for tendonitis?
|
decrease pain
maintain and restore tissue health |
|
what compartment is also referred to as the internal enviroment of the body?
|
the extracellular compartment
|
|
what are the long term treatment aims for tendinitis? (4)
|
prevent recurrence
increase range of motion increase muscle strength decrease scar formation |
|
extracellular fluid represents approximately how much volume of overall body fluid?
|
15 liters
|
|
which chemical mediators are responsible for chemotaxis of leukocytes?
|
Kinins
(bradykinin and others) |
|
extracellular fluid is subdivided into five addition fluids, name them.
|
interstitial fluid
blood plasma lymph cerebral spinal fluid synovial fluid |
|
which chemical mediators stimulate fibroblast activity and the repair of damaged tissues?
|
prostaglandins
|
|
substances flowing between the two body compartments are dependant upon which four things?
|
concentration gradient
particle size soluability (hydrophobic vs hydrophilic) type and number of receptors and carriers |
|
which system is the lymphatic sytem part of?
|
the circulatory system
|
|
what are three characteristics of membranes?
|
thin, selective and fragile
|
|
what are the two parts that compose the lymphatic system?
|
the network of lymph vessels
the lymphoid organs and tissues |
|
starting with the heart, describe the general pathway of fluids in the body
|
heart
blood vessels (arteries) interstitial spaces cells back to interstitial spaces blood vessels (veins) lymph vessels back to the heart |
|
what are the two main functions of the lymphatic system?
|
immunity
fluid balance |
|
which two types of pressure determine the movement of substances between compartments?
|
osmotic pressure and hydrostatic pressure
|
|
what do the lymphoid organs do?
|
filter fluid
phagocytize debris produce antibodies control fluid flow |
|
the make up of the intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid is different because of the amounts of what two substances?
|
the electrolyte concentration and the amount of proteins
|
|
what links the immunity role and the fluid balance role of the lymphatic system?
|
lymph nodes
|
|
the differences between the cytoplasm and the interstitial fluid is caused by these three cell characteristics
|
the hydrophobic nature of the plasma membrane
the selectivity of membrane proteins solute pumping. |
|
what forces the excess fluid into the interstitial spaces?
|
hydrostatic pressure inside the capillaries forces plasma into the IS
|
|
What is the product of fertilization?
|
a zygote
|
|
which structures collect interstitial fluid?
|
~ 3/4 is reabsorbed at the venous end of the capillaries
~ 1/4 is absorbed by lymph capillaries |
|
how long is the pre-embryonic period?
|
2 weeks
|
|
why can't protein be absorbed by the venous capillaries?
|
the particles are too big
|
|
What is the name for period of time spanning 9 weeks of pregnancy until birth?
|
the fetal period
|
|
what happens to the protein in the interstitial fluid?
|
it is absorbed by the lymph capillaries
|
|
what are the 6 stages of pre-embryonic development?
|
zygote
1st mitotic division early cleavage morula early blastocyst late blastocyst |
|
what characteristic of the lymph capillaries allows the proteins to be absorbed?
|
the overlapping endothelial cells have loose junctions
|
|
The first mitotic division results in the formation of how many identical cells and what is unique about them?
|
two cells and they are of unequal size
|
|
why does protein need to be taken out of the interstitial space?
|
because if it remains there it will increase the osmotic pressure and cause more fluids to be drawn out of the capillaries and cause swelling and disrupt the fluid balance
|
|
how many cells are there at morula formation and describe the conformation of the cells?
|
16 (or more) and they form a solid ball
|
|
how thick are lymph capillaries?
|
one cell thick
|
|
how soon after fertilization does the morula period occur?
|
72 hours
|
|
where will you not find lymph capillaries?
|
in the central nervous system
|
|
what happens during the blastocyst formation?
|
The morula separates into two parts
|
|
what are three ways that lymph capillaries have adapted to their role in the body?
|
highly permeable
anchored by protein filaments large openings |
|
what are the names of the two formations created in the early blastocyst period and what are their locations?
|
cytotrophoblast (the outer layer of cells)
embyonic disc / inner cell mass (the inner layer of cells) |
|
which lymph pathway is superfical?
|
the collecting vessels of the extremities
|
|
what blastocyst formation will form the placenta?
|
the cytotrophoblast
|
|
which lymph pathway is deeper?
|
the visceral vessels and trunks
|
|
what process or event is the end of the pre-embryonic period?
|
implantation - the blastocyst implants in the uterine wall
|
|
which duct drains the lower and the left side of the body?
|
thoracic duct
|
|
What is gastrulation?
|
the formation of primary tissue layers
|
|
which ducts drains the upper right portion of the body?
|
the right lymphatic duct
|
|
When does gastrulation occur?
|
Around week 3
|
|
which two forces determine the movement of fluids between the compartments of the body?
|
hydrostatic pressure
osmotic pressure |
|
what germ layers form the notochord?
|
the mesodermal cells
|
|
how many liters of fluid move out of the capillaries each day?
|
24 liters
|
|
what is the notochord?
|
the first axial support for the embryo
|
|
how much fluid is reabsorbed at the venule end of the capillary bed?
|
20 liters
|
|
what are the three germ layers?
|
ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm
|
|
how much fluid each day does the lymphatic system carry?
|
4 liters
|
|
what is organogenesis and what period does it occur in?
|
the formation of body organs and systems. It occurs during the embryonic period
|
|
increased capillary hydrostatic pressure results in what?
|
decreased drainage of interstitial fluid to lymph / build up of fluid
|
|
What tissues arise from the ectoderm?
|
The epidermis and the nervous system
|
|
decreased capillary osmotic pressure results in what?
|
decreased drainage of interstitial fluid to lymph / build up of fluid
|
|
The epithelium of the digestive and respiratory tract arise from which germ layer?
|
endoderm
|
|
inflammation, venous obstruction or surgical removal of the lymph vessels will lead to what?
|
local increased interstitial fluid
|
|
the mesoderm produces which tissues?
|
muscle and connective tissue including bone, blood and cartilage
|
|
which substance is the key contributor to osmotic pressure?
|
proteins
|
|
what four things are happening at the end of the embryonic period?
|
the bones are beginning to ossify
skeletal muscles are well formed and contracting spontaneously internal organs continue to develop rudimentary blood vessels are there to carry blood between the placenta and the embryo. |
|
what are some contributing factos to decreased plasma proteins?
|
liver disease
malnutrition kidney disease |
|
what ectodermic process is initiated as a result of signals from the notochord?
|
neurulation
|
|
how much protein leaks out of capillaries each day?
|
about half of the proteins in circulation
|
|
what is the name of the process which forms the nervous sytem?
|
neurulation
|
|
what is the name for generalized, systemic edema that affects the whole body?
|
anasarca
|
|
what are the five structures developed out of neurolation?
|
neural plate
neural groove neural folds neural tube neural crest |
|
why does increased capillary permeability lead to reduced osmotic pressure?
|
because the fluid that leaks out takes proteins with it. Less proteins in the capillary means lower osmotic pressure.
|
|
what is described as a thickening of the ectoderm overlying the notochord?
|
the neural plate
|
|
inflammatory exudates contain what kinds of things? (4)
|
plasma proteins
proteins from disintegrating cells Ab-Ag aggregates cellular debris from necrotic cells |
|
what is formed by the invagination of the neural plate?
|
the neural groove
|
|
the substances contained in exudates are removed by what system? Why?
|
by the lymphatic system, because the particles are too big to be removed any other way
|
|
when bilateral ridges from along the length of the neural groove what is this called?
|
the neural folds
|
|
what kind of edema is caused by serous exudates?
|
pitting edema
|
|
what is formed from the fusion of two neural folds?
|
the neural tube
|
|
what kind of edema is often associated with chronic edema?
|
pitting edema
|
|
what is the neural crest?
|
a group of neural cells on the underside of both neural folds
|
|
what kind of edema is associated with fibrinous exudates?
|
non pitting edema
|
|
the neural tube gives rise to what two structures?
|
The brain and the spinal cord
|
|
what kinds of injuries are associated with non pitting edema?
|
acute or sub acute injuries
|
|
the neural crest gives rise to which body structure?
|
The peripheral nerves
|
|
describe the feel of pitting edema
|
boggy
|
|
the mesoderm divides into what three sections?
|
somites
intermediate mesoderm lateral mesoderm |
|
describe the feel of non pitting edema
|
springy
|
|
name the three somites
|
sclerotome
dermatone myotome |
|
what kind of edema results in trophic skin changes?
|
chronic
|
|
the intermediate mesoderm gives rise to what two structures?
|
reproductive organs and kidneys
|
|
what is lymphangitis?
|
inflammation of lymph vessels
|
|
what are the two categories of the lateral mesoderm?
|
somatic and splanchnic
|
|
what is lymphedema?
|
excess interstitial fluid in the interstitial space and drainage can not keep up
|
|
the sclerotome will form what body structures?
|
the vertebrae and the ribs
|
|
what are some causes of dehydration?
|
excessive sweating
heavy bleeding severe burns vomiting diarrhea |
|
what will form the dermis of the skin and the dorsal part of the body?
|
the dermatone
|
|
what are signs and symptoms of dehydration?
|
dry mouth
hot, dry, itchy skin dizziness tired fever mental confusion |
|
The myotome will form what structure(s)?
|
The bulk of the skeletal muscles
|
|
what is the treatment for dehydration?
|
IV hypotonic infusion
|
|
what part of the lateral mesoderm will form the ventral dermis of the skin, the parietal serosa of the ventral body cavities and limb buds?
|
somatic
|
|
what is water intoxication?
|
decreased solute concentration in interstitial fluid leads to osmosis into cells due to increased osmotic pressure
|
|
what structures will arise from the splanchnic part of the lateral mesoderm? (3)
|
the cardiovascular system
most connective tissue structures smooth muscle of the gut and the respiratory tract |
|
what happens to cells during water intoxication?
|
cells and organelles swell ; metabolic disturbances
|
|
what are the two general categories of soft tissue?
|
contractile and non-contractile
|
|
what are the signs and symptoms of water intoxication?
|
nausea
vomiting muscle cramps cerebral edema |
|
what are the properties of soft tissue (4)?
|
pliabe, resistant
loss of resiliency = loss of function susceptible to injury lends itself to manipulation |
|
what can cerebral edema lead to?
|
disorientation
convulsions coma death |
|
what is cytology?
|
study of cells (both structure and function)
|
|
what is the treatment for hyponatremia?
|
IV hypertonic infusion
|
|
what is histology?
|
study of tissues
|
|
which organ systems are responsible for maintaining homeostasis?
|
circulatory
respiratory digestive urinary |
|
what are the four basic types of body tissues?
|
epithelial
connective nerve muscle |
|
what does the osmotic pressure of capillaries do?
|
draws water back into blood volume
|
|
the property of a tissue depends on what four things?
|
chemical composition
types of cells arrangement of cells type of extracellular material |
|
what is net filtration pressure?
|
hydrostatic pressure less osmotic pressure
|
|
describe the structure of epithelial tissue (3)
|
single or multilayers
continuous tightly linked cells |
|
what type of edema is a reflection of inflammatory condition due to injury?
|
local edema
|
|
what is the function of epithelial tissue?
|
forms barriers
lends tensile strength transfer materials (absorption, excretion, secretion, filtration) |
|
what type of edema is secondary to an organ/system dysfunction?
|
generalized edema / anasarca
|
|
If a tissue were described as bundles of cells in a parallel arrangement that are excitable, what type of tissue would it be?
|
muscle
|
|
what are the four major causes of edema?
|
increased hydrostatic pressure
decreased plasma proteins increased capillary permeability blocked lymphatic vessels |
|
describe the structure of nerve tissue
|
bundles of cells with elongated projections (axons). It is an excitable tissue
|
|
what is acidosis?
|
build up of waste in cells
|
|
what is the function of nerve tissue?
|
tensile strength and flexibility. The degree of which is determined by the amount and arrangement of fibres
|
|
describe the relationship between edema and blood pressure
|
edema causes decreased blood pressure
the heart works harder blood pressure goes up hydrostatic pressure increases increased hydrostatic pressure spurs on the edema |
|
what are the three shapes of epithelial tissue cells?
|
cuboidal, squamous, columnar
|
|
list four pathologies that increase blood pressure and edema
|
poorly functioning venous valves
thrombosis chronic congestive heart failure anything that causes an increase in blood volume |
|
what are the two arrangements of epithelial tissue cells?
|
simple (single layer)
stratified (multi layers) |
|
what is hypoproteinemia?
|
decreased proteins
|
|
list the seven special characteristics of epithelial tissue
|
highly cellular/tightly packed
specialized contacts polarity basement membranes innervated avascular regeneration |
|
what is the result of hypoproteinemia in blood volume?
|
more proteins outside the blood capillaries will lead to higher OP in the interstitial space and water will be drawn into the interstitial space and edema will result
|
|
what are the two types of specialized contacts in epithelial tissue?
|
tight junctions and desmosomes
|
|
where will anasarca be most prominent in a mobile patient?
|
the ankles and lower legs
|
|
what are the two basement membranes of epithelial tissue?
|
basal lamina
reticular lamina |
|
where will anasarca be most prominent in a bed ridden patient?
|
back
sacral area lungs serous cavities |
|
what does the basal lamina do?
|
it's a selective filter
|
|
what process is critical to rapid gas exchange in the lungs?
|
the air sacs must remain dry
the OP in pulmonary capillaries is greater than the HP therefore very little fluid filters out |
|
what does the reticular lamina do?
|
resists stretching and tearing
|
|
what causes pulmonary edema?
|
increased HP in capillaries
OR increased permeability due to hypoxia and inhaled irritants |
|
what is the 'ground substance' and where is it highly abundant?
|
collagen fibres found abundantly in the extracellular fluid.
|
|
chronic congestive heart failure leads to tissue hypoxia which results in what kinds of systemic symptoms? (4)
|
decreased exercise tolerance
fatigue weakness loss of muscle mass |
|
what is the apical surface?
|
The surface exposed to the outside, the free surface
|
|
what happens systemically if the kidneys don't filter water and wastes properly?
|
electrolyte and water imbalances
accumulation of urea salt and water accumulate and increase blood volume blood pressure increases edema occurs in dependent parts which can then shift at night and lead to pulmonary edema. |
|
what is the basal surface?
|
The surface facing internal structures
|
|
what is a microbe?
|
a microscopic living or non-living organism
|
|
what is the state of most of the cells of the epidermis?
|
They are dead
|
|
List the layers of the epidermis from deep to superficial
|
basale
spinosum granulosum lucidum corneum |
|
what are the four categories of organisms based on how they obtain nutrients?
|
autotroph
heterotroph saprophyte parasite |
|
which two layers of the epidermis contain dead cells?
|
corneum and lucidum
|
|
I synthesize organic compounds from inorganic ones
|
autotroph
|
|
I require a supply of organic compounds
|
heterotroph
|
|
which layer of the epidermis is the most superfical layer to receive blood?
|
granulosum
|
|
I eat only dead organic matter
|
saprophyte
|
|
what is unique about the basale layer of cells?
|
it is regenerating
|
|
I live on or in other organisms
|
parasite
|
|
what type of protein is collagen and what does it tell you about its function?
|
a fibrous protein and therefore lends strength and support to the skin
|
|
what are the five classes of infectious microbes?
|
prions and viruses
bacteria chlamydiae or Rickettsia fungi parasites, protozoa |
|
what is the function of elastin?
|
provides stretch and flexibility
|
|
what does eukaryotic mean?
|
an organism with cell nucleus surrounded by a membrane
|
|
what causes wrinkles or scars to form?
|
Collagen replaces elastin in the skin.
|
|
what is a host?
|
the organism supporting the nutritional needs and physical environment of another organism
|
|
what is present in the dermis that makes it an active part of healing injuries?
|
white blood cells
|
|
list three ways that a parasite can cause harm to its host
|
deplete nutritional resources
release toxic waste products incite adverse immune responses |
|
what are the two layers of the dermis?
|
papillary layer
reticular layer |
|
what is a parasitic relationship?
|
parasite benefits, host is harmed
|
|
which layer of the dermis is the superficial layer?
|
papillary layer
|
|
what is a symbiotic relationship?
|
both host and parasite benefit mutually
|
|
which layer of the epidermis is the source of all epidermal cells?
|
the basale
|
|
infection
|
parasites present and multiplying within host
|
|
which layer of the epidermis is attached to the dermis?
|
the basale
|
|
infected
|
organism is invaded by parasite
|
|
what are the two major functions of the skin?
|
protective and sensory
|
|
infectious disease
|
state where host is injured
|
|
what are the four types of cells in the epidermis?
|
keratinocytes
melanocytes Langerhans Merkel |
|
pathogen
|
disease causing parasite
|
|
which epidermal cells are tough and protective?
|
keratinocytes
|
|
pathogenicity
|
ability of a parasite to cause disease
|
|
where are melanocytes found and what do they do?
|
in the basale layer and they protect from UV radiation
|
|
virulence
|
severity of disease process
|
|
which cell type is found in the spinosum layer and what are their functions?
|
Langerhans. They are immune cells that destroy foreign substances
|
|
describe the 'effect' of prions
|
neurodegenerative
slow, progressive loss of coordination dementia |
|
where do you find Merkel cells and what do they do?
|
at the junction of the dermis and the epidermis - they sense light touch
|
|
what is the treatment for prion infection?
|
none
resistant to chemical and physical sterilization |
|
what are the six components of the dermis?
|
blood
lymph vessels sensory nerve endings sweat glands sebaceous glands smooth muscles |
|
what causes the neurodegeneration in a prion infection?
|
build up of protein
|
|
what do lymph vessels do?
|
they drain excess interstial fluid and return it to systemic circulation
|
|
what does obligate intracellular parasite mean?
|
it can not replicate outside the cell
|
|
what are the smooth muscles of the dermis called?
|
errector pili
|
|
viruses are living or non-living?
|
non - living
|
|
what are the protective functions of the skin?
|
first line of defense
prevents excess water from leaving or entering protects against radiation barrier (chemical, physical, biological) |
|
a virus consists of what three things?
|
a capsid (a protein coat)
nucleic acid core (DNA or RNA) a lipoprotein envelope (from the host) |
|
what are the six general functions of the skin?
|
protective
temperature regulation metabolic blood resevoir excretion cutaneous sensation |
|
how does a virus synthesize its components?
|
it hijacks the host cell's mechanisms
|
|
what are the three ways that skin regulates temperature?
|
sweating, shivering, oily secretions
|
|
how do viral particles 'spread'? (2)
|
host cells burst and viral particles are released to infect new cells
budding out of host cells |
|
what type of sweating occurs only at rest?
|
insensible perspiration
|
|
what are the two life cycles of viruses?
|
lytic cycle
latent cycle |
|
what is the metabolic function of skin?
|
converts amodified form of cholesterol into a precursor of vitamin D
|
|
describe the virus lytic cycle
|
infection
replication lysis release of virions |
|
How much of the total blood volume can the skin hold?
|
5%
|
|
what happens in the latent cycle?
|
viral DNA is inserted into host chromosomes
replication occurs later and begins lytic cycle |
|
what substances does the skin excrete?
|
water
salt nitrogenous wastes (urea, ammonia, uric acid) |
|
what four things can viruses interfere with?
|
DNA replication
RNA synthesis protein synthesis energy production |
|
what does cutaneous sensation allow us to do?
|
note changes in the environment
|
|
what does the body produce to interfere with virus replication?
|
interferons
|
|
what does prokaryote mean?
|
lacking a true nucleus
|
|
bacteria - prokaryote or eukaryotic>
|
prokaryotes
|
|
what classification (by nutrient gathering) does bacteria belong to?
|
heterotroph
|
|
describe the structure of bacteria
|
cell membrane
simple cell structure |
|
how do bacteria reproduce?
|
asexually - through mitosis
|
|
what kinds of life sustaining functions do bacterial engage in? (5)
|
energy production
protein synthesis maintaining boundaries DNA replication cellular reproduction |
|
do bacteria need a host cell?
|
no
|
|
are the majority of bacteria harmful or helpful?
|
helpful
|
|
the bacteria that are pathogenic, where do they multiply?
|
in blood and CSF etc
mostly extracellular |
|
what causes the damage to the host from a pathogenic bacteria?
|
toxins excreted by the bacteria lead to pathological tissue damage
|
|
what are the three shapes of bacteria?
|
cocci
spirrilla baccilus |
|
a spherical shaped bacteria
|
cocci
|
|
describe the shape of spirrilla bacteria
|
helical
|
|
elongated shaped bacteria
|
baccilus
|
|
describe / define prions and viruses
|
obligated intracellular parasite
non living infectious particle or organism |
|
what is an autonomously replicating unicellular organism?
|
bacteria
|
|
describe / define prions, chlamydiae and rickettsia
|
obligated intrecellular parasites with both viral and bacterial characteristics
|
|
what is a free living, eukaryotic saprophyte
|
fungi
|
|
describe / define parasites/protozoa
|
single celled, smallest members of the animal kingdom
|
|
what are the three classification of chronic bronchitis?
|
simple - no airway obstruction, cough
mucopurulent - pussy mucus asthmatic - hyperresponsive airways |
|
what is degluition?
|
swallowing
|
|
the presentation of late stage bronchitis is related to what?
|
hypoxemia
|
|
list the two swallowing phases
|
buccal
pharyngeal-esophageal |
|
compensatory measures in chronic bronchitis lead to what?
|
pulmonary hypertension
right sided heart failure chronic respiratory failure |
|
which swallowing phase is voluntary?
|
buccal
|
|
what is the treatment for chronic bronchitis?
|
smoking cessation
nutrition - fluid blance mobilization of secretions |
|
which swallowing phase is involuntary?
|
pharyngeal-esophageal
|
|
what is bronchiectasis?
|
disorders characterized by permanent dilation of the bronchi and bronchioles
|
|
what controls the pharyngeal-esophageal phase of swallowing?
|
medula
pons cranial nerve/vagus nerve impulses |
|
what are the two types/causes of bronchiectasis?
|
acquired (TB, CF, chronic bronchitis)
congenital (abnormal bronchi development) |
|
describe the relationship of the esophagus, trachea and larynx
|
the esophagus lies posterior to the trachea and the larynx
|
|
which condition can cause thick, foul smelling greenish frothy sputum?
|
bronchiectasis
|
|
at which vertebral level does the esophagus transect the diaphragm?
|
T11
|
|
what is cystic fibrosis?
|
inherited disorder of exocrine glands and mucus secreting glands
|
|
what is achalasia?
|
incomplete relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter in response to swallowing
|
|
which organ passageways are commonly obstructed in CF?
|
respiratory airways
pancreatic / GI ducts |
|
what results from achalasia?
|
food stasis in the esophagus
can lead to inflammation and esophagitis |
|
in someone in CF, the changes in mucus are secondary to what?
|
chloride ion transportation defect which leads to a disturbance in fluid and electrolyte transport
|
|
what is gastroesophageal reflux?
|
backward movement of the contents of the stomach
|
|
what are the two organ systems that have clinical presentations in CF?
|
digestive
respiratory / pulmonary |
|
what causes the burn of gastroesophageal reflux?
|
stomach acids come in contact with the unprotected mucosal surface of the esophagus
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what is the common cause of pulmonary embolism?
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thrombi from the deep veins in lower legs and pelvis
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what is esophagitis?
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inflammation of the esophageal mucosal wall
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where does a pulmonary embolism lodge?
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right side of heart or lungs
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what are signs and symptoms of esophagitis?
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heartburn
chest pain (replicates angina pectoris) belching |
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what is pulmonary hypertension?
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elevated pressure in the pulmonary arterial system
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what is esophageal diverticulum?
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posterior outpouching of the esophageal wall due to weakness of the muscularis
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list states that predispose to secondary pulmonary hypertension
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increased left atrial pressure
increased pulmonary blood flow increase pulmonary vascular resistance |
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what is the main issue with diverticula?
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food is retain in the outpouching which can ferment and cause bacteria to grow
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what is plural effusion?
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accumulation of fluid in the pleural cavity
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what are the two types of hiatal hernias?
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sliding
rolling |
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what is pneumothorax?
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air in the pleural cavity
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describe a hiatal hernia
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protrusion of a segment of the stomach above the diaphragm
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what is atelectasis?
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collapse of part or all of a lung
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what are the symptoms of a hiatal hernia?
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discomfort
pain dysphagia |
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what mechanical issue can cause pleural inflammation?
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loss of serous fluid leads to friction between the visceral and parietal layer
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describe a sliding hiatal hernia
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upward displacement of the esophagogastric junction. The hernia slide upwards when supine and moves back down in the upright position
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which actions aggravate pleural pain?
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deep breathing
coughing |
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describe a rolling hernia
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-a defect or weakness of the diaphragmatic esophageal hiatus
-the fundus bulges through the diaphragmatic opening and does not move back |
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pleural effusion is a form of......?
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edema
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how much can the stomach hold?
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up to 4L
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what is hemothorax?
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accumulation of blood in the thoracic cavity
a type of pleural effusion |
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what is the name for the proximal area of the stomach and what is its purpose?
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fundus
storage |
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what happens to the pressure gradient with pnuemothorax?
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intrapleural pressure approaches zero (no longer relatively negative)
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what is the name for the distal area of the stomach?
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pylorus
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what are the three types of pneumothorax?
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spontaneous
traumatic tension |
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what are the major contributing factors for esophageal cancer?
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smoking
alcohol consumption food stasis persistent achalasia |
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what is the cause of primary spontaneous pneumothorax?
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blebs on the lung that rupture and leak air into the pleural cavity
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what is the prognosis for esophageal cancer?
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poor due to late diagnosis
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what is tension pneumothorax?
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injury to respiratory structures or chest wall leads to air entering the pleural cavity but not leaving
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how many layers of muscle does the stomach have?
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3
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what is the cause of neonate/primary atelectasis?
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lack of surfactant
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List the layers of stomach muscles from outer to inner
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longitudinal layer
circular layer oblique layer |
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what is the cause of secondary or acquired atelectasis?
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airway obstruction - mucus plug
lung compression - tumour |
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what is the role of the mesenteries of the stomach
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anchor the stomach to the body wall and other organs
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which area of the lung is most often affected by lung cancer?
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bronchial epithelium
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where would you find mucus neck cells and what do they do?
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in the stomach
secrete mucus |
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what are some types of non-small cell lung carcinoma?
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squamous cell carcinoma
adenocarcinoma large cell carcinoma |
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where would you find parietal cells and what do they do?
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in the stomach
secrete hydrochloric acid and intrinsic factor |
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what structures make up the urinary system?
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kidney
ureter bladder urethra |
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where would you find chief cells and what do they do?
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in the stomach
secrete digestive enzymes |
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where are the kidneys located?
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upper lumbar region
lateral to T12 - L3 |
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what does the enteroendocrine gland in the stomach secrete?
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gastrin
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the concave surface of the of the medial kidney is knows as that what?
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renal hilus
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where are secretions in the stomach released into?
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gastric pits
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what travels in and out of the renal hilus and sinus?
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lymphatics
renal blood vessels ureters nerves |
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what is the main pro-enzyme released by chief cells?
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pepsinogen
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name the layers of support for the kidney from innermost to outermost
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renal capsule
adipose capsule renal fascia |
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which substance mediates the activation of pepsinogin?
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hydrochloric acid
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the renal arterial blood supply branches from which artery?
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abdominal artery
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what stimulates the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen?
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gastrin
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which structure is the functional unit of the kidney?
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the nephron
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what inhibits gastrin secretion?
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secretin
CCK (cholecystokinin) |
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where in the kidney would you find the majority of nephrons?
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in the medulla
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name the three sites and phases to the regulation of gastric secretions
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brain - cephalic phase
stomach - gastric phase intestine - intestinal phase |
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name the two parts of the nephron
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the glomerulus
renal tubule |
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which areas of the brain are responsible for the cephalic phase of gastric secretion?
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cortex
hypothalamus vagal nuclei in medulla |
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what collects the filtrate from the glomerular capillaries?
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Bowman's capsule
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when is the gastric phase initiated?
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when food reaches the stomach
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what structures would you find wrapped around the nephron and what is their function?
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peritubular capillaries
they reabsorb substances from the filtrate |
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low acidity and peptides in the stomach will do what?
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excite the secretion of gastrin
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what are the three layers of the glomerular membrane?
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1. endothelial layer (inside capillary)
2. basement membrane (collagen and proteoglycans) 3. epithelial layer (forms podocytes) |
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which substance promotes the secretion of acids and enzymes necessary for protein digestion?
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gastrin
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which three forces move fluid out of the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule?
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glomerular hydrostatic pressure
blood colloid osmotic pressure capsular hydrostatic pressure |
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what are the two components to the intestinal phase of gastric secretion?
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excitation
inhibition |
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which three fluids are involved in clearing wastes out of the body?
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blood
glomerular filtrate urine |
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describe the excitation part of the intestinal phase of gastric secretion
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a brief period of enhanced secretion when the stomach begins to empty into the duodenum
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name the three processes involved in urine formation
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glomerular filtration
tubular reabsorption tubular secretion |
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describe the inhibition part of the intestinal phase of gastric secretion
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gastric secretion is stopped after chyme is emptied as it is no longer needed
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what is the equation explaining net filtration pressure?
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NFP = GHP - (OP + capsular HP)
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what are some factors in the cephalic phase that will inhibit gastric secretions?
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depression
lack of cortical stimulation |
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the glomerular filtration is rate is defined as...?
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the amount of fluid passing through the glomerular membrane per minute
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what are some factors in the gastric phase that will inhibit gastric secretions?
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emotional upset
stress excess acid |
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what happens if the glomerular membrane becomes hyperporous?
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substances such as proteins and blood cells pass through
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what are some factors in the intestinal phase that will inhibit gastric secretions?
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distension of the intestine
presence of digestion producta |
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what happens if the glomerular membrane becomes hyporporous?
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there is a build up of metabolic wastes in the blood
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a high fat meal enhances the secretion of...
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bile
pancreatic juice / lipase |
