Russia in the 20th Century

Triggered by (initially popular) Russo-Japanese War -- failure.

Anti-government and undirected violence.

Not controlled or managed, and it had no single cause or aim...was the culmination of decades of unrest and dissatisfaction @ Romonov dynasty and slow pace of reforms.

Failed- no clear leaders/goals.

Began Duma Era, several groups disenfranchised (w/o property, unemployed...)

Minister of Internal Affairs.

Ag Reform Goals- liberate Russian Ag from archaic obshchina (from the Emancipation reform in 1861)... & to solve rural overpopulation (move them to the towns/cities)

Obshchina faults- collective ownership, scattered land allotments based on family size, stifling level of control by family elder.

Reforms(actions):
Develop large-scale individual farms (Khutors).
Intro Ag cooperation.
Develop Ag Ed.
Dissemination of new methods of land improvement.
Affordable lines of credit for peasants.
Creation of Agrarian Party- represent interest of farmers.

Somewhat successful, but WWI interrupted--> overpopulation problem continues.

Coming up to WWI:
Imperial Japan- Control over Korea (and NE China)
Germany- control over N.Iran and Afghanastan.
Balkan Wars- Russia loses outlet to sea.

WWI Begins:
28 June 1914- Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated.
Austria bombs Belgrade--> Russia mobilizes.
German/Austrian Schlieffen plan... 1 Aug: G declares war on Russia.

Early (Russian) Outcomes & 1915/1916:
Disastrous.
1915- G/A occupy Poland. Massive R casualties.
18 Sept 1915- Tsar Nikolai takes over army leadership, abandons capital (to Empress and Rasputin).
1916- Troops disillusioned, mistrust (by ppl) in Empress, G's pose threat to Petrograd, R in no better position than 1915.
Crisis reaches peak: bad food dist, GB declines request for help.

Worker strike- Putilov factory.
International Women's day (Feb 8)
130 killed by Tsar order.
March 15- Tsar Abdicates.
Results- Creation of Provisional Gov't.Dual Regime of Duma and Soviet.

Why dual? Soviet controlled railways, factories, empathy of workers--> Soviet now controls P.gov't.

Duma: land owners, merchants, intellectuals, teachers, Kadets, Octoberists, Russian Labor Party

Soviet: Workers, Soldiers, (eventually) Peasants.

Mensheviks & SR predominate Soviet. Kadets and Octobreists control Cabinet.

Soviet Role- watchdog over government. But no wish to directly take over... Tsar gone, but no stable sucessor.

Initiative of Soviet. Got rid of stratification between Soldiers and Officers.
Most importantly, gave soldiers right to assemble and make collective decisions re officer's orders.

Rights for workers (eg 8 hr working day).
Freedom of Press and Assembly.
Equality among all citizens (regardless of origin).--> abolished Jewish Pale of Settlement.

--> War Question Re-emerges... Cabinet says "pull out and forgive". Mass demonstrations, Kerenky becomes War Minister.

(L's thoughts):
To reach Communism, Russia needs two revolutions:
• The Bourgeois
• The Socialist
(Russia was alrdy Capitalistic)

--
Acquainted with Marxist circles in St. Petersberg in 1893.

Exiled 1897 for revolutionary activity.

April Theses delivered when returned to Russia by Germans.- Bolsheviks to stand alone and overthrow provisional gov't. (also- Theory of Interlocking dictatorship)

Lenin's return suspected to have German secondary intentions of affecting R's war effort, allowing G to focus on France.

His 1st gov't: Becomes chairman of council of people's commissars. Will not share power, kicks out Kamenev, Zinoviev and Rykov for suggesting it.

Dies- 21 Jan 1924. Age 53. Decision to Embalm opposed by wife(Krupskya) and Tortsky

"Lenin's Testament"- After PS, Trotsky supposed to be successor, not Stalin.

Written by Lenin, published in PRAVDA.

Bolsheviks should stand alone, and overthrow the provisional gov't (which is a bourgeois gov't. Time to put power in the peasant's hands!

Slogan "All power to the Soviets!"

Condemns WWI- says ppl forced to fight would gain most if turned against the country they are fighting for, make it into a civil war thus allowing for international exporting of socialism.

Theses rejected, then accepted after Lenin's "persuasion"

Cause: Kerensky's war effort against G. Very unpopular and unsucessful.

Workers + Soldiers + Kronstadt sailors come together.

LACK of leaders. B's not ready to take power.
Lenin Flees!

Branches off the July Days.

Kerensky restores pro-revolution forces (from July Days' arrests).

Kornilov believes a military defeat (from Kerensky's devotion to fighting a losing war) unbearable. Feels that Lenin and his "German spies" untrustworthy... Provisional Gov't to be restructured and military discipline restored.

Kornilov marches on Petrograd. Declares himself supreme power, forms directory.

Kerensky appeals to soviet including Bolshevik Red Guards, Kornilov stopped, Kerensky becomes C-in-C.

Begins to look like a military dictatorship.

Although Kerensky survived the Kornilov coup, that event weakened his government and strengthened the Bolsheviks, who eventually seized power in the October Revolution.

July days (no leaders)... Failed

Kornilov Revolt ... Failed

Economic Chaos- Gov't debts rise, industrial output falls. Price of bread doubles, print more money--->worthless!

Kerensky attacks Bolsheviks

Trotsky + MRC --> Kerensky flees.

K&Z publish opposition in newspaper.

Provisional Gov't orders AVRORA out to sea---> later comes back.

Attacks B press, and shuts down phone comm at Smolny institute.

Lacks backing, uses "Women's Battalion of Death" to shame men.

Cruiser AVRORA comes back. Kerensky flees to North. Plan- Rise Army and come back.

Not ready during July Days (1917). Reignited after Kornilov Revolt.

Overthrew provisional gov't--> Bolsheviks.

Lenin come back 20 Oct .

Vote of Non-Confidence: B's gain majority in Soviet.

CC (Central Committee)- discuss uprising: 10 yes, 2 no ( Zinoviev & Kamenev)

Forms MRC (Military Revolutionary Committee). Goal: Protect revolution and capital & soldiers to maintain neutral if not join them.

SEE: "Kerensky attacks Bolsheviks"

Kronstadt sailors arrives 6 Nov, Capital secured.

Winter Palace captured- Red Guard enters through front gate, not storm through. Max 5-10 deaths.

2nd Congress convenes- B's outnumber rivals, Men's walk out, will not recognize B congress.

Followed by Russian Civil War.

Decrees on Peace, Land, Rights of peoples of Russia.

Lenin becomes Chairman of Council of People's commissars. Trotsky of foreign affairs.

Lenin refuses to share power.

Decrees to centralize rule. Abolish/ dismantle old army, police service, and legal system --> New but inexperienced.

**Nationalized Banks and Industry- most of which were in debt or owned by foreigners**

Win elections! Allies with Left SR, bans Kadets.

When starts to lose to other parties, bans them, though minority, still intends to rule! Dissolves Constituent assembly, Congress declared highest power.
Men's excluded from Soviets.

Need to extract Russia from war.

G/A/Otto & R.
G demands independent Poland and Lithuania.
R- 3 factions:
1) Lenin- Accept, G rev will reverse damage later.
2)L. Bolsheviks- Fight!
3)Trotsky- No Peace, No war.

G lose patient, attacks, R loses ground, forced to sign even harsher terms! (R to have no army & pay indemnity to G)

Marked Russia's exit from World War I

New Capital- Moscow, safer than Petrograd (too close to Germans)

Tension: Tsarist Debts annulled, separation Church and State, Brest- Litovsk treaty...

Cheka to control any anti-Bolshevik action (called "counter-revolutionary").

Results- B's lose support, Men's gain.

B bans Men's. Stratifys L.SR's support base (peasants) to lessen focus and unity.
--> L.SR revolts, oppose B. Tries to reignite war w/ G. L.SR & Anarchists try uprising, fail.

Wartime economic policy aimed at keeping the Red Army supplied and able to fight (weapons and food).

Actions:
All factories under gov't control and directive.
Any dissenter (striker) could be shot.
Ag surplus requisition and re-dist.
Food and most commodities centralized and dist.
Private enterprise illegal.
Railroads controlled by military.
(temp) Abolish $
Stratify peasants- Blame Kulaks for lack of food.

The hardship caused to peasants caused exodus to countryside.

Black Market emerged despite laws against profiteering

Drought + 7 yrs of war + food requisition --> mass famine: 3-10 million deaths.

Results- Rebellions such as the Kronstadt rebellion (previously one of Bolshevik's strongest supporters). Failed collectivism- no mechanical base.

Replaced (by Lenin) with NEP

Also: "Third International".
founded in March 1919 by Vladmir Lenin, Leon Trotsky and the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

Goal: overthrow of the international bourgeoisie and for the creation of an international Soviet republic as a transition stage to the complete abolition of the State. (even if must by use of armed forces)

WWI= a bourgeois imperialist war

proposed by Lenin, instituted 21 Mar 1921.

Requisitions replaced with Flat Tax. Peasant may sell surplus. --> small scale capitalism.
BUT gov't retains heavy industry (steel, coal).

Harvest improves. Helps relieve famine.

Bukharin- "Enrich yourselves": get rich, sell lots of grain.
Felt- Socialism must be gradual changes starting with Ag reforms. -- Opposed by Trotsky. Cannot go back to near-capitalist stage.

Created the Fundamental Law of the Exploitation of Land by the Workers, which ensures that the peasants have a choice of land tenure

Foreign- Loosen trade restrictions.

Ag increasingly reliant on small farms. But heavy industries, banks remain owned and controlled by state. + No industrialization policy--> imbalance: Ag sector outgrowing industry.

In an effort to keep income high, industry now sells @ higher price.--> peasant must produce more as Ag goods fall in price. AKA: Scissors crisis...

Peasants withhold grain for price to rise, or sold to NEPmen (middlemen) @ high price... opposed by communist party, considered it an exploitation of urban consumers.

state took measures to decrease inflation and enact reforms on the internal practices of the factories. The government also fixed prices to halt the scissor effect.

Result- Success @ aiding a recovering economy after WWI, Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War. By 1923, back to levels pre-WWI.

(No army from B-L treaty)... New Red Army- compiled from criminals and old Tsarist officers (families held hostage).
Conscription introduced 29 May 1918.

Entente troops secure munitions in Russia belonging to GB and France.

Czech Corps incident with Hungarian POW's.

Whites rise up for Holy Russia. Made up of various groups: Men's SR's, Church (basically everyone Bolsheviks had to marginalize to take power)

Used by Allies... Contributed to the "Whites" cause to preserve Holy Russia.

Clashed with Hugarian POW's (in the process of being returned as per B-L treaty)... took over cities and towns.

Spring 1921, Mutiny on battleship Petropavlovsk.
Demanded end of Bolshevik regime of commissars.

Trotsky demands their surrender. Sailors refuse, repel Trotsky.
Heavy causalities for Red Army in 10 days of battle.

Resistance overcome, leaders executed.

Late 1922- discussed successors.

No: Zinoviev, Kamenev, Bukharin

Trotsky- conceit, arrogance, belief in original vision of socialist...

L unimpressed by Stalin's brutal methods against rebellious nationalities (Georgian Affair 1922)


Stalin insults Krupskaya (L's wife), L adds "PS: No Stalin!"

Suggestion against Stalin ignored.

"What is to be done"-
Allied with Lenin when he came back on the "sealed train"
"No Peace-No war" on Brest-Litovsk
Headed Left/United Opposition. -->removed from Politburo, CC, Party --> eventually exiled to Kazakhstan.

During civil war...(White) General in Omsk.

Declares himself supreme ruler of Russia, recognized by British and French and other white leaders. --> seems like white forces are united.

Little connection to peasants (the mass), wanted to restore land to former owners.

Then begins losing to Red Guard.

Seizure of 50% of the Imperial Gold (by B's).

Romanovs moved from Ekaterinburg (in Urals) due to combat zones. Placed under Cheka officer -- House arrest.

Called to cellar at night "for safety". Shot execution. Covered in acid and burned in an abandoned mine.

Only recently discovered during the period of Glasnos.

Boleshevik responsibility established

Chance to export revolution. Poland struggle against external control, "Provisional Polish Government" (Cheka controlled).

Polish believe any polish leader is better than Russian. Would not overthrow own gov't.

Armistice signed 12 OCT 1920.
Treaty of Riga signed 18 Mar 21.

Last remaining White General. Best White Commander.

Advances from Crimea, pushed back by Frunze, forced back to Crimea.
Rescued by British/ French Fleet.

Ideological Bolshevikism failed.

Export revolution- failed with Poland.
War communism- Failed

Civil war- Won! but only because it was the best of poor alternatives.

7 yrs of warfare, economic deprivation---> Mass Famine

More of a working class B than other leaders.
More of an administrative type- Great organizational abilities.

Educated in seminary, and expelled. Still retained some traces of influence afterward.

Not as bent about "exporting revolutions" as Trotsky or Lenin.

Insulted Krupskaya--> Lenin's testament agaisnt Stalin.

At one point believed ethnic groups should have self-determination, stopped after civil war.

Last serious attempt to remove Stalin from power.
Headed by Trotsky, Kamenev and Zinoviev.

Opposed to new policies to not export revolutions.

@ 1st, Trotsky ridicules K&Z in "Lessons of October"- they were not supporting or active in Oct 1917 Rev.

Stalin sidelines Trotsky with '"Trotskyism" (Neg) and changing his job. to Ectro-technical board, scientific-technical board.

Z&K ally with Krupskya, brings up Lenin's testament against Stalin--> leads to problems for Z&K... now common cause against Satlin.

Zinoviev- Removed from: Comintern, Central Committee, Party

Kamenev- Removed from: Politburo, Central Committee .

(T- removed from Politburo, CC, Party)

NOTE: Stalin always plans the demise of opponents carefully,in stages, always after apologising.

Z&K confess sins.

Allies with Krupskaya, brings up Lenin's testament against Stalin. demoted by S, allies with Trotstky with common cause (as the Left/United opposition).

German-Soviet. Allowed Germany to side-step Treaty of Versailles- could now train army in Russia.

GB-Soviet= Bad. (fake) Zinoviev letter calls for revolution in GB,--> Tory victory. & Struggle over China ideologies.
--
Franco-Soviet: R recognizes debts and nationalized industries prior. Needed by R to prevent Western anti-soviet bloc. F allowed R to join Kellogg Briand Pact (1929)- useless, Pact says war is bad.
--
R could not survive alone, needed trade and could not wait for uprisings! Need to co-exist!