UF COP PBD Exam #3 Review

uncontrolled growth and spread of abnormal cells

altered cell differentiation and growth

2 Rare Cancers:

Primary Cancer

Secondary Cancer

Tumor

Neoplasia

Neoplasm

_____Tumors have slow and limited growth, are well differentiated, resemble the cells in the tissue of origin and are localized.

T/F Benign tumors can be life threatening

T/F Benign tumors do not interfere with normal functioning

_____ tumors are less differentiated and have rapid and uncontrollable growth. They are different than the cells in the tissue of origin and invade surrounding tissues causing tissue damage.

T/F Malignant tumors are life threatening.

T/F Malignant tumors cause ischemia and tissue damage via dilation of blood vessels.

What tumors secrete proinflammatory and toxic substances which result in inflammation and tissue damage?

Can benign tumors turn malignant?

An example of a benign tumor turning malignant?

Pre-malignant tumors are

An example of a pre-malignant tumor is...

What is a Non-solid (“liquid”) tumor? example?

What is the fraction of cancer cells that can survive in the blood stream?

Intravasation

Matrix Metalloproteases (MMPs)

Cathepsins

How do cancer cells gain motility?

How do cancer cells evade immune surveillance?

What do cancer cells use integrin for?

What helps a cancer cell "settle" against the force of the blood stream?

Metastasis

What are SEM proteins?

4 Routes of Metastasis

Types of Body Cavities in which Metastsis can occur

Lymphatic Spread

Hematogenic Spread

Mechanical Transfer

What are potential factors that influence sites of Metastasis?

Breast Cancer common sites of metastasis:

Prostate Cancer common site of metastasis:

Lung Cancer common sites of Metastasis:

Colon Cancer common sites of Metastasis:

How do you identify a metastatic tumor?

T/F Metastatic tumors may be detected before the discovery of primary tumor

T/F Most cases of cancer are genetic.

BRCA1 and BRCA2 Gene mutations

Tumor Suppressor genes

APC Gene Mutation

Proto-oncogenes/ Oncogenes

RAS

KRAS

HRAS

WNT gene

SFRP-1 loss occurs in the following cancers

Rb Gene

TP53

Li-Fraumeni syndrome

Human Papillomavirus (HPV)

HPV infects host cells and produces:

Cancer Risk Factors

Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)

What is Imaging in Cancer Diagnosis?

Types of Imaging for Cancer Diagnosis

Transmission Imaging:

Reflection Imaging

Emission Imaging

What are Cytologic and histologic diagnosis methods for Cancer?

What are Genetic Diagnosis methods for Cancer?

What are Biomarker methods for Cancer Diagnosis?

Most common Cancers

Most common Cancers in Men? Women?

Which Cancer Causes the highest number of deaths each year?

What are the cancers with the highest survival rate?

What is Cancer?

Tumor

Benign Tumor

Pre-malignant tumor

Malignant tumor

Benign Tumor Suffix?
Malignant Tumor Suffix?

Non-Solid (“liquid”) Tumors

T/F All benign tumors are not life threatening.

T/F All malignant tumors are life threatening

Benign fibrous mesothelioma

Mucinous cystadenoma

Pre-malignant Tumor

Colon polyp

Actinic keratosis

What is Cell Proliferation?

What is Cell Differentiation?

Self-renewal

Potency

Totipotent stem cell

Pluripotent stem cells

Multipotent stem cells (progenitor cells)

Unipotent stem cells (precursor cells)

T/F Can all cells be Totipotent under specific conditions?

S Phase

Cyclin A

G2 Phase

Cyclin B

M Phase

Cyclin D

G0 Phase

G1 Phase

Cyclin E

How do Cyclins regulate the Cell Cycle?

Benign Tumor Cell Characteristics

Malignant tumor cells

Grade I malignant cells vs Grade IV malignant cells

What is the Detection Limit of conventional radiography for Cancer Cells?

What is a potentially lethal number of cancer cells?

What kinds of genetic abnormalities do cancer cells have?

Do cancer cells need growth factor to proliferate?

What are some altered cell-cell/cell-environment interactions in Cancer cells?

How do cancer cells live so long?

Do cancer cells have the ability to present antigens?

What is angiogenesis and do cancer cells have the ability to do this?

VEGF

What role does Hypoxia play in angiogenesis of cancer cells?

What are factors that increase VEGF?

Criteria of a central neurotransmitter must be _____ and stored in the presynaptic terminal & neuron, must be released in accordance with neuronal _______ (Ca2+ dependent, vesicular), must activate target tissue identical to neuronal stimulation.

Excitation (EPSP)

Inhibition (IPSP)

ligand gated ionophores are what speed?

This receptor is composed of 4-5 subunits.

Subunits are selective-drug targeting subunits so there are many types of subunits especially with ___________ receptors.

T/F Ligand-gated Ionophores only control ionic composition

Membrane-bound enzymes and G-protein coupled receptors are _____ in terms of their speed.

What types of receptors can change between hyperpolarization and depolarization?

What kinds of receptors can regulate transcription & translation but are not intracellular?

only have 1 Membrane spanning region

Membrane-bound enzymes activate intracellular enzymes such as:

Tyrosine Kinase is a _________________ that ______ tyrosine to activate it.

Serine/Threonine Kinase is a _________________ that ______ serine/threonine to activate it.

Guanylyl Cyclase is a _________________ that converts ____ ---> ____ which activates protein kinases to activate/inactivate other proteins.

Tyrosine phosphatase is a ________ that ________ tyrosine to inactivate it.

In the ______ family the protein has 7 membrane spanning regions with the ____ subunit determining the effector. When the receptor binds to the protein, ___ ---> ___.

Go

Gs

Gi

In Phospholipase C, ____ activates PLC to make ___ & ___. ____ binds to the calcium storage vesicle which causes a release of calcium. The calcium will bind to the ____-Protein kinase C complex and activates ____, which will activate other proteins.

In Adenylate Cyclase, ___ activates AC to increase ___ production while ___ inhibits it. The new product activates _____ which will in turn activate other proteins.

________ goes into the nucleus where it modulates transcription and translation in Adenylyl Cyclase.

T/F in Adenylate Cyclase, the protein is a dual regulator.

In Phospholipase A2, ____ activates PLA2 to liberate ______ ____ from the membranes. That will then combine with ____ & ____ to yield prostaglandins, prostacyclins, and thromboxanes as well as _______ to yield leukotrienes.

The really slow receptors are the...

_______ receptors regulate transcription and translation by forming a dimer at the receptor to activate or inactivate mRNA transcription.

Remove NTs with two things:

What is the normal target of drug treatment?

What is the rate limiting step (usually)

Exitatory Amino Acids?

What is the rate limiting step in Glutamate synthesis?

For Glutamate, uptake occurs with ____ dependent transporters are located on neuron and ____ cells.

Metabolism of Glutaminate:

Kainate Receptors are found in the _________ terminal and are _______ receptor types. They produce _____ effects by increasing Na+ and decreasing K+ in the cell.

NMDA Receptors are found in the _________ terminal and are _______ receptor types. They produce excitatory effects by increasing ____ and decreasing ____ in the cell. Sometimes increase ____.

_____ Receptors are found in the glutamatergic terminal and are ligand-gated ion channel receptor types. They produce excitatory effects with K+, Na+ and Ca++.

The answer is not NMDA

Metabotropic receptors found in the glutamatergic pathway use ____ and ____ in order to decrease cAMP and increase IP3 & Ca+.

Glutamatergic pathways in the brain: _____ to _____. Many short interneurons in all parts of brain.

Spondee

What are the inhibitory amino acids?

Ballad

For GABA, uptake occurs with ____ dependent transporters are located on neuron and ____ cells.

Metabolism of GABA:

_____ Receptors are found in the GABAergic terminal and are ligand-gated ion channel receptor types. They produce inhibitory effects by increasing ____ ions.

______ receptors are metabotropic type of receptors using ____ to inhibit AC, decreasing ___ & ___ ions and decreasing cAMP.

The CNS effects of GABA include:
Anxiety
Sedation
Epilepsy
Motor Function

T/F

Increased GABA function decreases locus ______ output and inhibits ______ and hippocampus causing anxiety.

Epilepsy with GABA is caused by Inhibition of neuronal hyperactivity in ____ while Serotonin inhibits colliculi.

In motor function, Caudate/putamen inhibits _____ _____ and Serotonin via GABA.

Huntington’s Chorea

GABA neurons are all over the brain BUT one of the important pathways are _______ to substantia nigra to ______.

superior colliculi

inferior colliculi

What is the rate limiting step in Norepinephrine synthesis?

There are no glial cells helping in norepinephrine pathway. T/F

How is norepinephrine synthesized?

For Norepinephrine, uptake occurs with ____ dependent transporters which are located on _____ cells.

Metabolism of Norepinephrine:

Alpha-1 receptors are found in the _________ terminal and are _______ receptor types. They are liked to ____ which activates PLC. This increases ____ and DAG.

Alpha-2 receptors are found in the _________ terminal and are _______ receptor types. They are liked to ____ inhibit adenylyl cyclase. This decreases levels of _____. It is also linked through ____ to inhibit Ca2+ levels. Also increase _______ reflex for blood pressure control.

_____ Receptors are found in the Noradregnergic terminal and are metabotropic receptor types. They produce stimulatory effects with Gs to stimulate _____ and increase cAMP levels.

Norepinephrine increases _____ in the CNS via the pathway of ____ ____ ____ (RAS) to cortex to the _________.

T/F Alpha 1 receptors in brain stem regulate blood pressure.

_______ neurotransmitters assist in memory from the RAS to hippocampus & cortex pathway.

_______ neurotransmitters assist in pain inhibition from the RAS to descending pathways to spinal cord.

______ cell bodies are located in the locus ceruleus.

Norepinephrine cell bodies are located in....

________ travels from LC to hippocampus, cortex, hypothalamus, cerebellum

What is the rate limiting step in Serotonin synthesis?

How is serotonin synthesized?

Uptake in serotonin happens in the.... by....

How is Serotonin Metabolized?

5HT-1 Receptors are found in the serotonergic terminal and are _______ receptor types. They produce _____ effects by decreasing cAMP and K+ in the cell. It is liked with the protein ____ to inhibit adenylyl cyclase. Pathway used in anti-________ drugs.

__________ receptors deal with anti-depression and anti-psychotic behaviors. They are linked by ____ to activate PLC and produce ______ effects.

What is the receptor in serotonin that is a ligand-gated ionophore?

5HT-3 receptors are ____________ receptor types and produce excitatory effects.

5-HT 4, 6, 7 are _____________ receptor types and use ____ to increase cAMP.

In terms of sensory, less serotonin will cause an _________ of the senses.

Serotonin neurons that travel from the RAS to the cortex & hypothalamus deal with:

Serotonin receptors that deal with migraine are....

Serotonin receptors that deal with emesis are....

Serotonin neurons that travel from the RAS to the cortex & thalamus deal with:

Serotonin neurons that travel from the RAS to the lamina II spinal cord deal with:

What is the rate limiting step in Dopamine synthesis?

For Dopamine... uptake on neurons? glia? or both?

Metabolism for Dopamine?

D1-like receptors are on the ________ terminal and are _________ types of receptors and produce ________ effects although it increases cAMP via a ____ protein

________ receptors are on the dopaminergic terminal and are metabotropic receptors that produce inhibitory effects with ____ protein which decreases cAMP production. They are also linked with ____ to inhibit Ca2+ channels

VTA to nucleus accumbens & frontal cortex describes the pathway of ____________ (NT)

In dopaminergic pathways, _____ to _____ deals with the motor system that affects parkinson's disease & Huntington's chorea.

hypokinesia is.... and is in what disease?

excess dopamine causes involuntary movements in this disease....

Schitzophrenia is caused by an imbalance in these 3 receptor subtypes... it inhibits the release of...

_____ receptors can cause Emesis in the area prostrema in the dopaminergic pathway.

What pathway do these three relate to?
Substantia nigra to caudate/putamen

Ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens

Hypothalamus to pituitary gland (via prolactin release)

In the reward pathway....

Dopamine inhibits _______ meanwhile GABA inhibits ______ and movement.

Too little DA, too much ACh, too much GABA

Too much DA, too little ACh, too little GABA

What is the rate limiting step in Acetylcholine synthesis?

Uptake in Acetylcholine -

Metabolism of ACh:

___ and ___ receptors in the cholinergic terminal are metabotropic and increase DAG & IP3 with _____ protein to produce an excitatory effect.

M2 & M4 receptors in the cholinergic terminal are _________ types of receptors that decrease cAMP and K+ with ____ protein to produce an inhibitory effect.

Nicotinic receptors at the cholinergic terminal increase ___, decrease ___ and increase ___. They produce excitatory effects.

The two major pathways for ACh in the brain are ______ _____ to frontal, parietal and thalamus

AND

____ ____ to hippocampus

Endogenous Opioid Peptides Synthesis:

Rate Limiting step in Endogenous Opiod Peptide Synthesis?

What is the type of uptake used in Opioid Peptide Synthesis?

Endogenous Opioid Peptides Metabolism?

____ receptors are in the opioid pathway and are linked through ____ & ___ to inhibit AC and Ca2+ channels. They are endorphins ___________. Produce inhibitory effects.

____ receptors are in the opioid pathway and are linked through ____ & ___ to inhibit AC and Ca2+ channels. They are dynorphin. Produce inhibitory effects.

Proopiomelanocortin --> ___-endorphin
______ nucleus to:
o _________ (Stress)
o Preiaqueductal grey, raphe (pain)
o Nucleus tractus solitaries (autonomic reflexes)
o Striatum (motor rigidity)
o Nucleus _______ (euphoria, addiction)

_________ --> met-enkephalin, leu-enkephalin
Interneurons in:
o Hypothalamus (endocrine)
o _________ grey, substantia gelatinosa (pain)
o Nucleus tractus solitaries (Autonomic reflexes)
o ______ (motor rigidity)
o Nucleus accumbens (euphoria, addiction)
o Cortex, hippocampus, limbic system (emotions)

Prodynorphin --> dynorphin __ and __
Interneurons in
o Hypothalamus (endocrine)
o ____ spinal cord (pain)
o Striatum, substantia nigra (motor rigidity)
o Nucleus accumbens (dysphoria)
o Limbic system (emotions)

Other peptide relased from dorsal root ganglion

Other peptides that deal with the feeding metabolism:

Other peptide that acts as a growth hormone & nerve growth factors

Primary visual processing area

Primary motor processing area

Primary sensory (tactile) processing area

Primary auditory processing area

Stimulates caudate nucleus

The “brakes” of the basal ganglia

Endocrine center

Basal ganglia afferent region

Basal ganglia efferent region

Executive function

Stimulatory center of the reticular activating system

Inhibitory center of the reticular activating system

Inhibits caudate nuclei

Overactivity is implicated in Huntington’s chorea

Overactivity is implicated in drug addiction.

Overactivity is implicated in epilepsy

Underactivity is implicated in epilepsy

Cell bodies project from ventral tegmental area to nucleus accumbens

Cell bodies project from locus ceruleus to cortex

Cell bodies project from raphe nucleus to spinal cord

Cell bodies project from arcuate nucleus to periaqueductal gray

Cell bodies project from cortex to caudate and putamen

Small interneurons are present in the dorsal spinal cord.

Small interneurons are present in the ventral spinal cord.

Cell bodies project from caudate nucleus to substantia nigra.

Cell bodies project from septum to hippocampus

The rate-limiting step for its synthesis is a Na-dependent transporter

The rate-limiting step for its synthesis is the dietary levels of the precursor

Shares almost the same synthetic pathway as glutamate

Shares almost the same synthetic pathway as dopamine

44. Which of the following are true about acetylcholine (ACh)?
a. there is a loss of ACh neurons in the brain of patients with Alzheimer's disease.
b. nicotinic ACh receptors generally cause excitation of postsynaptic cells.
c. short acetylcholine neurons are localized in the striatum and are thought to be the cause of resting tremor in Parkinson’s Disease.
d. cholinergic neurons project from the basal nucleus throughout the cortex.
e. all of the above are true.

43. Which of the following are true about NMDA-selective glutamate receptors?
a. agents that activate these receptors may increase memory formation and make you smarter.
b. chronic activation of these receptors could cause loss of neurons due to excitotoxicity.
c. activation of these receptors may make you have a seizure.
d. drugs that block these receptors may be useful therapeutic agents for decreasing brain damage in stroke patients.
e. all of the above.

41. Which of the following are true about agents that increase dopamine D2-like receptor activities?
a. they would worsen the symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
b. they are useful as antiemetic agents.
c. chronic treatment with them could cause male breast development and lactation.
d. they might worsen the symptoms of schizophrenia.
e. all of the above.

40. If intact working norepinephrine pathways in the brain are necessary for transmitting "good mood" thoughts, then which of the following actions of a new drug called
“Ai-ight” would cause an increase in mood?
a. inhibiting dopamine beta hydroxylase activity.
b. increasing norepinephrine transporter activity.
c. increasing the number of presynaptic alpha 2 receptors.
d. increasing the number of postsynaptic beta receptors.
e. all of the above.

39. Which of the following are true about GABA?
a. there is a selective loss of GABA neurons in the striatum of patients with Huntington’s chorea.
b. It is thought that GABA agonists help relieve the symptoms of anxiety because GABA inhibits both locus ceruleus and amygdala activity.
c. GABA receptors always inhibit action potentials of postsynaptic cells regardless of which receptor subtype is involved.
d. GABA-B receptors can form heterodimers which can activate different G-protein coupled second messenger systems.
e. all of the above.

38. Endogenous opioid peptides generally have inhibitory cellular effects because they can:
a. inhibit potassium conductance during an action potential thereby inhibiting release of neurotransmitter.
b. increase calcium ion concentrations intracellularly thereby causing hyperpolarization.
c. inhibit cyclic AMP formation via an interaction with Gi.
d. increase sodium ion concentrations extracellularly by opening sodium channels.
e. all of the above.

37. Which of the following receptor subtypes does NOT act as an autoreceptor?
a. 5-HT1D
b. D1 dopamine
c. Alpha-2
d. M2 muscarinic
e. GABA-B

36. High affinity reuptake pumps are:
a. calcium dependent.
b. sodium dependent.
c. temperature dependent.
d. voltage dependent.
e. both b and d are true.

35. The spinothalamic tract:
a. is a sensory pathway that carries fine sensations for the hands and face.
b. is a sensory pathway that carries pain and temperature sensations for the body.
c. contains both sensory and motor fibers.
d. can be inhibited by descending adrenergic and serotonergic projections.
e. both b and d are true.

What is responsible for the Blood Brain Barrier? (Cellularly)

CNS-Vascular endothelial Composition:
Have little transcytotic activity- lack both fluid-phase and receptor-mediated _______.

CNS-Vascular endothelial Composition:
Contain specific ______ for glucose (nutrients), amino acids, vitamins, metals, nucleosides

CNS-Vascular endothelial Composition:
______ enzymes – neurotransmitters and peptidases

Non ______ soluble substances cross the BBB with transporters.

_______ transports glucose down its concentration gradient in the BBB.

All 3 _____ _____ carriers in the BBB are Na+ dependent. Only ____ and ____ systems require energy and transport glycine, alanine and serine AND alanine, serine and cysteine (RESPECTIVELY). The ___ system on the other hand transports large neutral AA with branched or ringed side chains (leucine and valine).

_______ is the precursor for dopamine and is used to treat parkinson's.

MDR Protects brain from circulating neurotoxins

2-aminobicycloheptane-2-carboxylic acid (BCH) is a Experimental inhibitor of which transporter?

Alpha-methylaminoisobutyric acid (MeAIB) is a Experimental inhibitor of which transporter?

4 Things that disrupt BBB:

Circumventricular organs are.... (definition)

1. Media _______ – hormone/ANS regulation
2. Organum _______ of the lamina terminalis – BP
3. _______ organ – water balance/ BP
4. Sub ______ organ – BP
5. Area ______ – vomiting

The lining of the ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord is called _______.

The ependymal lining has special cells called ______ which form tight junctions that prevent the entry of molecules from the blood supply of the _______ organs from entering the CSF.

_______ ____ functions as a one-way valve and blood/CSF barrier.

The _______ are fluid-filled spaces in the brain where the CSF is produced and circulates

______ are connective tissue sheaths that are comprised of three membraneous layers: _____ mater (collagenous connective tissue) which contains venous sinuses, _____ mater (Collagenous and elastic fibers) avascular, and the ____ mater (Connective tissue-collagenous and elastic fibers) which is the external layer with tiny blood vessels. They function to pad & protect the brain.

The function of the CSF is to do three main things:

What produces CSF?

what is the choroid plexus?

How is CSF absorbed?

meningitis

What two layers of the meninges are most often affected in meningitis?

_____ meningitis increases lymphocytes, sugar and protein in CSF. prognosis is generally _______.

_____ meningitis has three major invaders: Haemophilus influenza, Streptococcus pneumonia, Neisseria meningitides. prognosis is generally _______.

The most infectious form of bacterial meningitis is...

symptoms of meningitis:

pneumococcal meningitis

water in the brain

Hydrocephalus can be caused by decreased CSF absorption via the clogging of the _______ ___. It can also be caused by a tumor in the _____ _____ which causes overproduction of CSF. Brain tumors and obstruction of the _____ can cause this by blocking flow of CSF.