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224 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Abrupt decline in renal function that occurs over a period of hours to days
|
Acute renal failure
|
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Most common cause of acute tubular necrosis and its prevalence
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Nephrotoxicosis (25%)
|
|
List some nephrotoxic substances
|
Ethylene glycol
Lily plants Rodenticide Raisins Melamine/Cyanuric acid Cisplatin |
|
Percentage of cardiac output that goes to the kidney
|
20-25%
|
|
Two causes of renal vasoconstriction
|
NSAIDs
Hypercalcemia |
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Main cause of nephritis leading to acute renal failure
|
Leptospirosis
|
|
4 common causes of acute renal failure in dogs and cats
|
Ethylene glycol
NSAIDs Idiopathic Leptospirosis |
|
CS associated with ARF
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Acute onset
Lethargy Depression Inappetance Vomiting and diarrhea Oliguria or anuria Kidneys normal to large and may be painful |
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Chemistry changes assoicated with ARF
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Renal azotemia
Hyperphosphatemia Metabolic acidosis Increased AG Hyperkalemia or rarely hypokalemia Hypocalcemia or hypercalcemia |
|
WIth renal azotemia, what will the urine SG be?
|
1.008-1.012
|
|
Two drugs that may affect USG
|
Diuretics
Corticosteroids |
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4 endocrine abnormalities that may affect USG.
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Hypoadrenocorticism
Hyperadrenocorticism Ketoacidosis with diabetes mellitus Hyperthyroidism |
|
Patient presents with lethargym depression, vomiting of 5 days duration, severely depressed. There has been no urine production observed since 2 days ago. The kidneys feel enlarged and painful. Radiographs show good bone density. If this patient is in renal failure, what kind is it?
|
Acute renal failure
|
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A patient presents with a 2 month history of inappetance, weight loss, vomiting. He is BAR. Owner reports that he is drinking and peeing a lot. THe patient is thin. The kidneys feel small. If this animal is in renal failure, what kind is it?
|
Chronic renal failure
|
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A patient has an increased Hct, and his BUN/Creatinine are progressively creeping up. Serum K is increased and the patient is severely acidotic. What is the likely syndrome taking place?
|
Acute renal failure
|
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A patient has a non-regenerative anemia, and a BUN/creatinine that is elevated but stable. The serum K is decreased, and the patient is mildly acidotic. UA shows isosthenuria only. What is the likely problem based on this information?
|
Chronic renal failure
|
|
List two diagnostic tests used to pinpoint a specific cause of acute renal failure.
|
Lepto MAT
Ethylene Glycol test kit |
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This form of kidney failure is potentially reversible if diagnosed and managed early.
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Acute renal failure
|
|
Treatment goals for ARF.
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Keep hydrated to minimize damage.
Treat the treatable abnormalities Promote diuresis and reverse oliguria Combat uremic consequences |
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When treating ARF, over what period of time should deficit plus maintenance be administered?
|
6 hours
|
|
Urinary catheter should be indwelling in an ARF patient if the urine production is under...
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1 mg/kg/h
|
|
Initial fluid rate in an ARF patient.
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1.5-2X maintenance
|
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Sensible losses and BW ahould be evaluated in an ARF patient every...
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4 hours
|
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Type of fluids a patient in ARF should be given
|
Low sodium
|
|
Estimated rate of insensible losses.
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10 mL/kg/day
|
|
How can one reverse persistent oliguria?
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Give additional 3% BW in fluid
Mannitol CRI or q 6-8h iff effective Furosemide, CRI or q 8h if effective |
|
3 drugs that may be given to normalize a high BP in an ARF patient
|
Norepinephrine
Dobutamine Amlodipine |
|
How can one treat hyperkalemia in ARF?
|
Bicarbonate
Dextrose/insulin Ca gluconate for arrhythmias |
|
At what level does serug potassium become life threatening?
|
Around 8 meq/L or of cardiotoxic effects seen
|
|
How can uremic ulceration be addressed?
|
Anti-emetics, H2 blockers
Oral chlorhexidine rinses BID Nutrition (oral or enteral) ASAP |
|
How frequently should the BW and BP of an ARF patient be checked?
|
2-4X daily
|
|
These parameters should be checked on an ARF patient at the end of rehydration, then daily
|
Hct/TP
Serum chemistries and electrolytes |
|
In ARF, when can fluid therapy be tapered?
|
Once BUN and Creatinine are normal and oral fluids tolerated without vomiting
|
|
Prognosis for fulminant ARF
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Grave (90-100% mortality)
|
|
A dog presents in ARF and you send off a Lepto titer. When should antibiotic therapy be initiated? What drugs should be used
|
Start penicillin, ampicillin or 2 weeks of doxycycline ASAP until titer comes back.
|
|
Prognosis for appropriately treated Leptospirosis
|
70-80% survival
|
|
Describe the "dose reduction" modification for ARF medications
|
dose/serum creatinine
|
|
Describe the "interval prolongation" modification for ARF medication
|
interval X serum creatinine
|
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What is the outcome for survivors of ARF?
|
40% complete recovery
60% CRF |
|
How can ARF be prevented?
|
Pre-anesthetic bloodwork and BP for at-risk patients (CRF, CHF, dehydrated, NSAIDs)
Avoid nephrotoxic drugs IVF prior and during anesthesia Monitor BP under anesthesia Inform owners of toxins |
|
After how long does kidney disease become "chronic?"
|
3 months
|
|
Inability of the kidneys to perform excretory, regulatory, and synthetic functions due to a loss of functional nephrons over months to years.
|
Chronic renal failure
|
|
Most common cause of chronic renal failure
|
Idiopathic
|
|
First noticeable sign of CRF in most animals is...
|
PU/PD
|
|
An animal presents with PU/PD, lethargy and weight loss, inappetance, vomiting, and weakness with anemia. This has been going on for several months. What kind of renal disease is likely the problem?
|
Chronic renal disease
|
|
DIsorders that may contribute to progression of CRF
|
UTI
Hypertension Hyper/hypothyroidism Hypercalcemia Neoplasia Urinary obstruction |
|
Hereditary disease seen most commonly in Cairn terriers and Persian cats
|
Polycystic kidney disease
|
|
CS seen with polycystic kidney disease
|
Enlarging abdomen
Lumpy bumpy kidneys, usually large |
|
Polycystic kidney disease is managed like what other disorder once patient becomes azotemic?
|
CRF
|
|
Genetic test for polycystic kidney disease in Persian cats
|
PCR for PKD1 mutation
|
|
UPC over 2 likely means...
|
Glomerular disorder
|
|
UPC between 0.5 and 2 likely means...
|
Tubulointerstitial disorder
|
|
Halmark of glomerular disease on urinalysis
|
Proteinuria with normal urine sediment
|
|
Two most common glomerular diseases
|
Glomerulonephritis
Amyloidosis |
|
Are glomerular disorders more common in cats or dogs?
|
Dogs
|
|
Descrbe how glomerulonephritis happens.
|
Antigens trapped in glomerulus bind circulating Ab. Immune response that follows damages glomerular filter leading to protein loss.
|
|
Acute phase protein responsible for amyloidosis
|
Serum amyloid A
|
|
How does amyloidosis cause kidney disease?
|
Infiltration disrupts normal nephron function and leakage of vital serum proteins
|
|
Top two causes of glomerular disease
|
Idiopathic
Extra-renal neoplasia |
|
Two drugs that may cause glomerular disease
|
Trimethoprim sulfa
Corticosteroids |
|
Radiographic length of normal kidney
|
2X length of L2
|
|
Pros of kidney tranplantation in cats
|
70-85% survival and some cats live years!
|
|
Cons of kidney transplantation in cats
|
Lifelong immunosuppression required
Cost exceeds $5,000 |
|
Px for kidney transplantation in dogs
|
Poor. Many die during sx, and the rest live under 1 year.
|
|
How is CRF manages?
|
Treat any concurrent disease
Avoid nephrotoxic medications Diatary management Manage fluid/electrolyte/acid base disorders Control hyperphosphatemia Control hypertension Treat anemia |
|
List some principles for dietary management of CKD/CRF
|
Restrict protein, P, and Na
|
|
Benefit of special diets for renal disease
|
Prolongs survival and time before uremia
|
|
How should CKS patient be treated when he cannot drink enough to keep self feeling well and eating?
|
Supplemental fluids SQ (100-200 mL QD or EOD) or via gastrostomy tube
|
|
Treatment for hypokalemia seen in CRF
|
Oral supplementation with potassium gluconate (2-4 meq/day)
IV KCl if severe |
|
Treatment for hyperphosphatemia seen with CRF
|
Restrict dietary P
AlOH (Rolaids) CaCO3 (Tums) Ca acetate |
|
How can metabolic acidosis seen with CRF be addressed?
|
K citrate or NaHCO3
|
|
Anti-hypertensives useful in managing CRF
|
Ca-channel blockers like amlodipine
ACE inhibitors |
|
When should anemia associated with CRF be treated?
|
Hct under 20%
Fatigue, weakness, depression, tachypnea |
|
How can anemia associated with CRF be treated?
|
Transfusion
Epogen (risk cross reaction with existing EPO) Darbapoietin (fewer SE) |
|
Why does chronic renal failure sometimes cause a patient to develop a puffy face, decreased bone density, and microfractures in bones?
|
Secondary hyperparathyroidism due to hyperphosphatemia and loss of renal vitamin D. Causes bone reabsorption via excess PTH to maintain blood Ca.
|
|
Drug used to decrease PTH and hyperparathyroidism in CRF patients
|
Calcitriol
|
|
Is calcitriol more beneficial in cats or dogs with CRF?
|
Dogs
|
|
Benefits of using ACE inhibitors in CRF.
|
Reduce BP, intraglomerular pressure, and proteinuria
Prolongs life |
|
Two ACE inhibitors used in treatment of CRF
|
Enalapril
Benazepril |
|
How does glomerular disease lead to thrombosis?
|
Loss of AT III
|
|
Anti-platelet therapy used in cases of CRF with glomerular disease
|
Aspirin
|
|
Animals with CRF who are doing well should be re-evaluated every...
|
3-6 months
|
|
What should be monitored at a CRF recheck?
|
BP
PE Body weight Hct Biochem and electrolytes UA UPC if there is glomerular disease |
|
Px for azotemic renal failure with dietary therapy and initial stable function for dogs? Cats?
|
Dogs: 0.5-2 years
Cats: 1-3 years |
|
Negative prognostic factors with CRF.
|
Initial systolic BP > 160 mmHg in dogs
UPC ratio > 1 in dogs, >0.2 in cats Also: CS uncontrollable, needs parenteral fluids, hypertension in cats, increasing serum creatinine |
|
Criteria for IRIS staging includes:
|
Creatinine
Proteinuria Blood pressure Evidence of organ damage |
|
Benefits of renal US over contrast urogram
|
Can visualize a non-functional kidney
|
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Which kidney is usually more cranial and much more difficult to visualize on US?
|
Right kidney
|
|
This organ can be used as an "acoustic window" to visualize the R kidney on US
|
Spleen
|
|
Organ often evaluated ultrasonographically at same time as R kidney
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Caudate lobe of liver
|
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Which part of the kidney on US is the most hyperechoic?
|
Renal pelvis (full of fat)
|
|
Is the renal medulla or the renal cortex more hyperechoic on US?
|
Renal cortex
|
|
Does the normal renal cortex appear hyperechoic or hypoechoic compared to the spleen on US?
|
Hypoechoic
|
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True or false: Fluid in the renal pelvis is a definite sign of pyelonephritis on US.
|
False. May be seen in many animals.
|
|
Size of ultrasonographic fluid pocket in renal pelvis considered normal in dog and cat
|
Dog: 2.0 mm (1-3.8 mm)
Cat: 1.8 mm (0.08-3.2 mm) |
|
Length of the normal cat kidney on US
|
3.0-4.5 mm
|
|
Normal renal length: aortic diameter ratio in dog, as seen on US
|
5.5-9.1
|
|
Renal length in the dog is compared to what on US?
|
Aortic diameter
|
|
Rank the echogenicity of these organs: Spleen, kidney, liver
|
Spleen> kidney = liver
|
|
True or false: It is possible to have diffuse renal disease without any ultrasonographic change
|
True
|
|
Ultrasonographic signs of diffuse renal disease include...
|
Hyperechoic renal cortex with enhances cortico-medullary distinction
Hyperechoic renal cortex AND medulla Change in size |
|
Ddx for increased renal size and diffuse changes on US
|
Amyloidosis
Lymphoma FIP Ethylene glycol toxicity |
|
Ddx for decreased renal size and diffuse changes on US
|
Acute interstitial nephritis
Pyelonephritis Glomerulonephritis Hypercalcemic nephropathy Congenital renal dysplasia |
|
Two conditions in which a hypoechoic halo may be seen on US around a hyperechoic kidney.
|
FIP
Lymphoma |
|
Casues of focal renal disease
|
Renal cyst
Renal infarct Primary and metastatic neoplasia Abscess Hematoma |
|
Are chronic renal infarcts hyperechoic or hyperechoic on US?
|
Hyperechoic
|
|
True or false: A heathy bladder should be full of fluid and located deep in the abdomen on US
|
False: Full and superficial
|
|
Ideal radiographic diagnostic test for ruptured bladder
|
Positive contrast via retrograde cystourethrogram
|
|
Thickness of normal bladder wall in small animals
|
1-2 mm
|
|
Common ultrasonographic artefact in the cranial bladder wall when there is free fluid in the abdomen
|
"Hole" in the wall of cranial bladder
|
|
Most urine stasis occurs at this area of the bladder, where focal thickening of the wall may be seen in cystitis.
|
Cranioventral
|
|
Bladder neoplasia commonly occurs at what site?
|
Bladder neck
|
|
In addition to a thickened bladder wall with protrusions, what other ultrasonographic finding may be associated with bladder neoplasia?
|
Enlarged regional LN
|
|
On IVU, this phase of urinary tract visualization happens almost instantaneously.
|
Vascular phase
|
|
After IV contrast is injected, how long before the kidneys are best visualized.
|
10-30 seconds, up to two minutes
|
|
List four radiographic characteristics of kidney disease
|
Number
Size, shape, and margination Location Opacity |
|
Normal radiographic size of the dog kidney.
|
2.5-3.5 X L2
|
|
Average radiographic size of the male cat.
|
2.1-3.2 X L2
|
|
True or false: Older cats tend to have smaller kidneys.
|
True
(2.4-3.0 X L2) |
|
True or false: Intact male cats tend to have smaller kidneys.
|
False
(2.1-3.2 X L2) |
|
Normal radiographic kidney size of a young, castrated cat
|
1.9-2.6 X L2
|
|
True or false: In early or acute kidney disease, the kidneys may appear radiographically normal.
|
True
|
|
Multiple radiolucent filling defects seen in the kindeys of a Persian cat likely means...
|
Polycycstic kidneys disease
|
|
Differentials for bilateral kidney enlargement on radiographs
|
LSA
Bilateral hydronephrosis Perinephric pseudocysts |
|
Normal urine output in the average horse
|
5-15L daily
|
|
Factors affecting water intake in the horse
|
Diet
Environmental temp Water intake |
|
Does renal disease typically cause signs of colic in the horse?
|
No
|
|
Which kidney(s) is/are palpable on rectal palpation of the horse?
|
Left caudal pole
|
|
What diagnostics can reasonably be done on free-catch urine in the horse?
|
Cytology
Chemistry NOT culture |
|
When is cystocentesis done on the horse?
|
Not done
|
|
How is horse urine collected for culture?
|
Sterile catheterization
|
|
Crystal type normally present in horse urine
|
Calcium carbonate
|
|
Normal USG in the horse
|
Over 1.028
|
|
Normal pH of horse urine
|
7.5-8.5
|
|
Azotemia in the horse is defined as...
|
Creatinine over 2.0 mg/dl
|
|
Normal serum creatinine in the foal
|
0.8-1.2 mg/dL
|
|
Normal serum creatinine in the adult horse
|
1.2-1.8 mg/dL
|
|
Significance of creatinine in foals under 8h old...
|
Reflects placental function. If high, check the mare for placental disease.
|
|
Is tubular disease or glomerular disease more common in the horse?
|
Tubular disease
|
|
Renal autoregulatory mechanism by which signals from the nephrons adjust glomerular filtration based on tubular solute flows and tubular fluid pressure. This maintains balance between filtered load and reabsorptive capacity.
|
Tubuloglomerular feedback
|
|
Hyperphosphatemia occurs when the horse's GFR is decreased by...
|
85-90%
|
|
Sources of GGT
|
Biliary tree, pancreas, and renal tubular cells
|
|
Normal urine GGT:creatinine ratio in the horse
|
10 to 25
|
|
Significance of an elevated GGT:creatinine ration in the horse
|
Renal tubular injury
|
|
Normal endogenous creatinine clearance in an adult horse per minute
|
1.8 mL/kg/min
|
|
Fractional excretion in the horse is highest for which electrolyte? Na, Cl, K, P?
|
K, due to high potassium intake of horses
|
|
What are some indications for urethral endoscopy in the horse?
|
Hematuria
Suspected pyelonephritis Urine scalding Suspected bladder stone Oliguria, uroperitoneum in foals |
|
Is it normal for a horse to have urethral bleeding when passing an endoscope?
|
Yes
|
|
From where in the urinary tract should urine be sampled via catheter, to rule out pyelonephritis in the horse?
|
Ureter
|
|
Persistent urachus may be normal up to what age in the foal?
|
10 days
|
|
Horse kidney most accessible for biopsy
|
Right kidney b/c fixed against body wall.
|
|
2 reasons that catheterization is impractical in the bovine
|
Suburethral diverticulum
Sigmoid flexure |
|
Congenital abnormality of hemoglobin that causes discolored urine and pink teeth
|
Porphyria
|
|
A bovine has red urine and normal serum. CK and AST are elevated. What is the source of the red urine?
|
Myoglobin
|
|
Easy way to determine whether red urine is true hematuria
|
Centrifuge the urine and get a RBC pellet at the bottom of the tube with clear supernatant
|
|
Normal range of bovine USG
|
1.020-1.040
|
|
Causes of a urine pH over 8.5 in the bovine
|
Metabolic alkalosis
Bacterial infections of urinary tract |
|
Causes of urine pH under 7 in the bovine
|
Lactic acidosis and paradoxic aciduria
|
|
Test used to acidify a sample of alkaline urine (with sulfosalicylic acid) so that protein may be more accurately measured
|
Bumin test
|
|
Bacterial count above which a bacterial infection of the bovine urinary tract is suggested
|
>100,000 (free-catch)
|
|
Four parameters on a urinalysis that will usually be elevated in the event of UTI.
|
WBC, RBC, protein, bacturia
|
|
List some of the CS associated with renal disease in the bovine
|
Dullness
Inappetance Dysuria Dehydration Tachycardia Fever Diarrhea Nephromegaly Weakness Bleeding diathesis |
|
Which kidney is usually palpable in the bovine?
|
Left only
|
|
Will the WBC count in bovine with pyelonephritis be elevated or decreased?
|
Elevated
|
|
Will the WBC count in the bovine with an acute septic disorder be elevated or decreased?
|
Decreased
|
|
Two most common kidney diseases in cattle
|
ATN and glomerulonephritis
|
|
Criteria for azotemia in cattle
|
BUN > 20 mg/dl
Creatinine > 2.0 mg/dl |
|
Is prerenal azotemia usually mild or severe?
|
Mild
|
|
Is BUN or creatinine a better indicator of azotemia in cattle? Why?
|
Creatinine b/c rumen microflora effectively reduce circulating concentration of BUN by the rumen reutilization cycle
|
|
Describe the typical electrolyte abnormalities seen in the bovine with renal disease
|
Hyponatremia
Hypokalemia Hypochloremia |
|
Describe the typical mineral abnormalities seen in the bovine with renal disease
|
Hypocalcemia
Hyperphosphatemia Hypermagnesemia |
|
In the bovine, is the creatinine clearance ratio or phenosulfopthalein test done more frequently to evaluate renal function?
|
Creatinine clearance ratio
|
|
Test that compared the concentration of an electrolyte or mineral in the serum and urine to the level of creatinine in the urine and serum.
|
Creatinine clearance ratio
|
|
Normal CCR Na in cattle
|
Under 1%
|
|
Caustion should be used when interpreting CCR Na in bovines that have been receiving...
|
Na rich fluids
|
|
Dye excretion test used to evaluate renal function in the bovine
|
Phenosulfopthalein
|
|
How is the left bovine kidney visualized on US?
|
Per rectum
|
|
How is the right bovine kidney visualized on US?
|
Per-cutaneously
|
|
Two causes of acute tubular necrosis in the bovine
|
Renal ischemia caused by endotoxemia or prolonged, severe hypotension
Nephrotoxins |
|
Diseases that may cause renal ischemia in the bovine include
|
Mastitis
Metritis Enteritis Peritonitis (Overall, acute septic diseases) |
|
List some mephrotoxic drugs given to the bovine
|
Sulfonamide, tetracycline, NSAIDs
|
|
List some nephrotoxic plants a bovine with ATN may have eaten
|
Oak, pigweed, halogeton
|
|
List some heavy metals that may be nephrotoxic
|
Arsenic, mercury, cadmium, lead
|
|
List two nephrotoxic endogenous substances
|
Hemoglobin
Myoglobin |
|
CS of acute tubular necrosis in the bovine
|
Dullness
Inappetance Dehydration Oliguria--> polyuria Weakness--> recumbency Nephromegaly Bleading diathesis Diarrhea |
|
Dye excretion test used to evaluate renal function in the bovine
|
Phenosulfopthalein
|
|
How is the left bovine kidney visualized on US?
|
Per rectum
|
|
How is the right bovine kidney visualized on US?
|
Per-cutaneously
|
|
Two causes of acute tubular necrosis in the bovine
|
Renal ischemia caused by endotoxemia or prolonged, severe hypotension
Nephrotoxins |
|
Diseases that may cause renal ischemia in the bovine include
|
Mastitis
Metritis Enteritis Peritonitis (Overall, acute septic diseases) |
|
Pyelonephritis in cattle is caused by either...
|
Corynebacterium renale
E. coli |
|
CS of pyelonephritis in the bovine
|
Dullness/inappetance
Fever Wt loss Dysuria (stranguria, hematuria, pyuria) Abnormal rectal exam with thickened bladder and enlarged ureters and kidneys |
|
CBC abnormalities seen in the bovine with pyelonephritis
|
Neutrophilia +/- left shift
Monocytosis Hyperfibrinogenemia |
|
Urinalysis abnormalities in the bovine with pyelonephritis
|
Increased protein
Increased RBC, WBC Bacteria (>100,000 per ul) Occasional leukocyte casts |
|
True or false: Patients with unilateral pyelonephritis will be azotemic.
|
False
|
|
Renal azotemia occurs when what % of nephron function is lost?
|
75%
|
|
Tx of bovine pyelonephritis
|
Antimicrobials
Fluids Urinary acidification |
|
Antibiotic used to treat bovine pyelonephritis caused by C. renale
|
Penicillin
|
|
Antibiotic used to treat bovine pyelonephritis caused by E. coli
|
Ampicillin
Ceftiofur |
|
How long should antibiotic therapy for bovine pyelonephritis continue?
|
2-4 weeks
|
|
Urine acidifying agent used to treat pyelonephritis in the bovine
|
Ammonium chloride 50-100 mg/kg BID
|
|
Good prognostic indicators for bovine with pyelonephritis
|
Treatment with proper antimicrobial early in the course for 2-4 weeks
|
|
List some ways in which bovine pyelonephritis may be prevented.
|
Isolation of cattle during treatment
Destroy contaminated bedding Adequate cleaning of vulva prior to examination or treatment of repro tract Artificial insemination |
|
Normal voiding pressure in the bladder
|
90 mmHg
|
|
Why is lumenal suture contraindicated in equine bladder surgery?
|
Alkaline urine causes a more rapid breakdown of absorbable suture
|
|
This class of anesthetic drugs causes dose-dependent diuresis.
|
Alpha-2 agonists
|
|
The umbilical vein regresses into what structure?
|
Falciform ligament
|
|
The umbilical arteries regress into what structures?
|
Round ligaments of the bladder
|
|
Treatments for a non-infected patent urachus include...
|
Systemic TMS or gentamycin
Daily cleansing with chlorhexidine Cautery with silver nitrate sticks 2-3% iodine Surgery if still patent in 3-4 days |
|
Typical agent causing infected umbilical remnant in the calf.
|
A. pyogenes
|
|
How is umbilical infection diagnosed?
|
Ultrasound
In the calf, the umbilicus will be large, hot, firm, and painful. |
|
Uroperitoneum typically presents itself at what age in the foal?
|
2-3 days
|
|
Maintenance fluid rate in the foal
|
2% BW per hour
|
|
CS of uroperitoneum in the foal
|
Lethargy, anorexia, abdominal distension, dehydration, tachycardia, tachypnea, little or no urination
|
|
How often should a neonatal foal urinate?
|
Every time they nurse
|
|
Electrolyte abnormalities associated with uroperitoneum in the foal.
|
Azotemia
Hyponatremia Hypochloremia Hyperkalemia |
|
This peritoneum:serum creatinine ratio is indicative of uroperitoneum.
|
Over 2.1
|
|
How do you address hyperkalemia in the foal?
|
IV NaCl
Dextrose 0.5 mg/kg IV |
|
Repair of a rent in the bladder
|
Cystoplasty
|
|
Closure of a bladder incision
|
Cystorraphy
|
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List some modes of treatment for umbilical hernia.
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Manual reduction
Hernia belt Surgery Clamp- RUMINANTS ONLY |
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Most common large animal uroliths
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Type I: CaCO3
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Type II uroliths are made up of...
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Hydrated Ca salts
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Type of urolith associated with high dietary Mg
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Type I, CaCO3
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