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affirmative action
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Government-mandated programs that seek to create special employment opportunities for blacks, women, and other victims of past discrimination.
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amendment
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Addition to the Constitution. Amendments require approval by two-thirds of both houses of Congress and three-quarters of the states.
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American Party/Know-Nothings
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Political party of the 1850s. The Know-Nothings (so named becaus of their secretiveness) pursued nativist goals, including severe limitations on immigration.
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Susan B. Anthony
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Political activist who spent her life campaigning for women's right to vote.
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appellate court
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Court in which appeals of lower court decisions are heard.
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aristocracy
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Form of government in which power in concentrated in the hands of the upper social class.
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Articles of Confederation
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The United States' first constitution. The government formed by the Aritcles of Confederation lasted from 1781 (the year before the end of the Revolutionary War) to 1789. The government under the Articles proved inadequate, because it did not have the power to collect taxes from the states, nor could it regulate foreign trade in order to generate revenue from import and export tariffs.
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autocracy
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Form of government in which power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual.
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bicameral
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Consisting of two legislative houses. The US has a bicameral legilature; its two houes are the House of Representatives and the Senate.
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Bill of Rights
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First ten amendments to the US Constitution. The Bill of Rights guarantee personal liberties and limit the powers of the government.
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black codes
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A series of laws passed in the post-Civil War South to limit the rights of freed blacks. The black codes included restrictions on assembly, travel, and access to plublic institutions; curfew laws; and laws requiring blacks to carry special passes.
(Jim Crow Laws)
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blanket primary
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Primary election in which voters may select a candidate from any party for each office. Blanket primaries use the same procedure as general elections.
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bread-and-butter issues
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Those political issues specifically directed at the daily concerns of most working-class Americans, such as job security, tax rates, wages, and employee benefits.
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broad constructionism
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Belief that the Constitution should be interpreted loosely concerning the restrictions it places on federal power. Loose constructionists emphasize the importance of the elastic clause.
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Brown versus Board of Education
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The 1954 case in which the Supreme Court overturned the "separate but equal" standard as it applied to education; "separate but euqal" had been the law of the land since the Court had approved it in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896. In a 9 to 0 decision, the court ruled that "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal."
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budget resolution
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Set of budget guidelines that must pass both houses of Congress in identical form by April 15. The budget resolution guides government spending for the following fiscal year.
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caucus
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Meeting of local party members for the purpose of choosing delegates to a national party convention. The term also refers to a meeting of the Democractic memebers of the House of Representatives.
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Central Intelligence Agency
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U.S. espionage and information-gathering agency. The CIA operates overseas, monitoring the activities of U.S. enemies and potential enemies.
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checks and balances
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The system that prevents any branch of government from becoming too powerful by requiring the approval of more than one branch for all important acts.
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civil court
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Court in which lawsuits are heard.
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civil disobedience
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Nonviolent civil disobedience requires activists to protest peacefully against laws they believe unjust and to be willing to accept arrest as a means of demonstrating the justice of their cause. The notion was popularized by 19th century American writer Henry David Thoreau and was practiced by Martin Luther King, Jr.
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civil liberties
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Those protections against government power embodied in the Bill of Rights and similar legislation. Civil liberties include the right to free speech, the free exercise of religion, and the right to a fair trial.
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civil rights
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Those protections against government power by the government and individuals. Civil rights are intended to prevent discrimination based on race, religion, gender, ethnicity, physical handicap, or sexual orientation.
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Civil Rights Act of 1964
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Federal law that made segregation illegal in most public places, increased penalties and sentences for those convicted of discrimination in employment, and withheld federal aid from schools that discriminated on the basis of race or gender.
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closed primary
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Primary election in which voting is restricted to registered members of a political party.
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cloture
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A motion in the Senate to end debate. A cloture vote requires a three-fifths majority of the Senate.
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Coercive Acts
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Closed Boston Harbor to all but essential trade (food and firewood) and declared it would remain closed until the damages incurred during the Boston Tea Party were paid for. Several measures tightened English control over the Massachusetts government and its courts, and another required civilians to house British soldiers.
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concurrent powers
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Constitutional powers shared by the federal and state governments.
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conference committee
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Congressional committee which includes representatives of both houses of Congress. Their purpose is to settle differences between the ouse and Senate versions of bills that have been passed by their respective legislatures.
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Congressional Budget Office
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Congressional agency of budget experts who assess the feasibility of the president's plan and who help create Congress' version of the federal budget.
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Constitutional amendments
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Additions and changes to the original Constitution. The first ten amendments make up the Bill of Rights; there are currently twenty-seven amendments.
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constitutional convention
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As yet untried methody by which the Constitution may be amended. To call a constitutional convention, two-thirds of all state legislatures must petition the federal government.
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constitutional government
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Form of government in which government power is vested in the people and is defined and limited by law.
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cooperative federalism
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Form of U.S. federalism since the passage of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Fourteenth Amendment initiated the long demise of dual federalism by providing the national government the means to enforce the rights of citizens against state infringment. The Progressive Era, the New Deal, and the Great Society all increased federal involvement in state government. The result is a system called cooperative federalism in which the national and state governments share many powers.
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criminal court
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Court in which criminal trials are heard.
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Currency Act of 1764
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Forbade the colonies to issue paper money. The colonists saw the British government increasing its control over the colonies against the colonists' will.
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delegated powers
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Constitutional powers granted solely to the federal government.
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direct democracy
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Form of government in which all enfranchised citizens vote on all matters of government.
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double jeopardy
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The act of trying an individual a second time after he has been acquitted on the same charges. Double Jeopardy is prohibited by the Constitution.
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dual federalism
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Form of U.S. federalism during the nation's early history. During this period, the federal and state governments remained separate and independent. What little contact most Americans had with government occurred on the state level, as the national government concerned itself primarily with international trade, construction of roads, harbors, and railways, and the distribution of public land in the west.
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due process
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Established legal procedures for the arrest and trial of an accused criminal.
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elastic clause
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The section of the Constitution that allows Congress to pass laws "necessary and proper" to the performance of its duties. It is so-called because it allows Congress to stretch powers beyond those that are specifically granted to it by the Constitution.
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Electoral College
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Constitutionally established body created for the sole purpose of choosing the president and vice-president. During general elections, voters choose a presidential ticket. The winner in each state usually receives all of these _____ votes. A majority of ____ cotes is required to win; if such a majority cannot be reached, the election result is determined by the House of Representatives.
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English Bill of Rights
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1689 document guaranteeing certain basic rights to English subjects. Those rights include the right to a speedy trial; protection against excessive bail and cruel and unusual punishment; and the right to petition the government. This document also prevented the king from interfering with elections or from imposing taxes without consent of the Parliament.
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Englightenment Era
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Period stretching from the late 17th century through the end of the 18th century. Sometimes called the Age of Reason. Science flourished during the this. As it did, many philosophers placed great faith in the powers of reason and human capability. With this increased faith came the belief that individuals were entitled to greater control over their own governments. Associated with writers Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu.
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Equal Rights Amendment
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Failed Constitutional amendment that would have guaranteed equal protection under the law for women.
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establishment clause
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Section of the Constitution that prohibits the government from designating one faith as the official religion of the US.
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exclusionary rule
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Rule that prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence at trial. The Supreme Court has created several exceptions to the exclusionary rule, notably the objective of good faith rule and the inevitable discovery rule.
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extradition
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Process by which governments return fugitives to the jurisdiction from which they have fled.
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Federal Bureau of Investigation
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Federal executive agency charged with enforcing most federal laws. Under J. Edgar Hoover's leadership, it grew to become a powerful government agency.
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