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Theory
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A framework that can be used to comprehend and explain events
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Sociological Theory
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a set of principles and definitions that tell how societies operate and how people relate to one another and respond to their surroundings
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Research
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A fact gathering and Fact explaining enterprise governed by strict rules
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Research Methods
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techniques that sociologists and other investigators use to formulate meaningful research questions and to collect, analyze, and interpret data or observations in ways that allow other researchers to verify results
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Function
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the contribution of a part to the order and stability within the larger system
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Manifest functions
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A parts intended or anticipated effects in order and stability
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Latent Functions
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Unintended or unanticipated effects on order and stability
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Dysfunctions
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Disruptive consequences to society or to some segment in society
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Latent Dysfunctions
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Unintended unanticipated disruptions to order and stability
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Social Interaction
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Everyday events in which two people communicate interpret and respond to each other’s words and actions
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Symbol
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any kind of physical phenomenon to which people assign a name meaning or value
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Scientific method
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An approach to data collection in which knowledge is gained through observation and its truth confirmed through verification
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Objectivity
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A state in which the researcher’s personal subjective views do not influence the outcomes of the researchers
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Concepts
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Thinking and Communication tools that are used to give and receive complex information efficiently and to frame and explain observations
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Research design
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a plan for gathering data the specifies who and what will be studied and the method of data collection
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Methods of data collection
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The procedures a researcher follows to gather relevant data.
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Traces
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Materials or other forms of physical evidence that yield information about human activity
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Documents
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Written or printed materials used in research
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Territories
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Settings that have borders or that are set aside for particular activities.
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Households
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All related and unrelated persons who share the same dwelling
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Small groups
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Two to about 20 people who interact with one another in meaningful ways
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Populations
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The total number of individuals, traces, documents, territories, households, or groups that could be studied
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Sample
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a portion of the cases from a larger population
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Random Sample
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A type of sample in which every case in the population has an equal chance of being selected
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Representative Sample
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A type of sample in which those selected for study have the same distribution of characteristics as the population chosen for the study
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Sampling Frame
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a complete list of every case in the population
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Self-administered Questionnaire
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A set of questions given to responders who read the instructions and fill in the answers themselves
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Interviews
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Face-to-face or telephone conversations between an interviewer and a respondent in which the interviewer asks questions and records the respondent’s answers
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Structured Interview
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An interview in which the wording and sequence of questions are set in advance and cannot be changed during the interview
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Unstructured Interview
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An interview in which the question-answer sequence is spontaneous, open-ended, and flexible
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Observation
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a research technique in which the researcher watches, listen to, and records behavior and conversation as they happen
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Nonparticipant observation
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A research technique involving detached watching and listening in which the researcher does not interact with the study participants.
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Participant observation
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A research technique in which researchers interact directly with study participation
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Secondary Sources (archival data)
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Data that have been collected by other researchers for some other purpose
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Variable
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Any trait or characteristics that can change under different conditions or that consists of more than one category
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Dependent variable
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The variable to be explained or predicted
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Independent variable
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the variable that explains or predicts the dependent variable
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Hypothesis
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A trial explanation put forward as the focus of research that predicts how independent and dependent variables are related and how the dependent variable will change when there is a change in the independent variable
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Operational definitions
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Clear, precise definitions and instructions about how to observe and measure concepts and variables
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Reliability
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the extent to which the operational definitions gives consistent results
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Validity
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The degree to which an operational definition measures what it claims to measure
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Ascribed Characteristics
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any physical trait that is biological in origin and/or cannot be changed but to which people assign overwhelming significance
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Manifest Dysfunctions
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A parts anticipated disruptions to order and stability
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Generalizability
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the extent to which findings can be applied to the larger population from which the sample is drawn
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Correlation coefficient
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a mathematical representation that quantifies the extent to which a change in one variable is associated with a change in another variable
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Spurious Correlation
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A correlation that is coincidental or accidental because some third variable is related to both the independent and dependent variables
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Control variables
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Variables suspected of causing a spurious correlation
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Ascribed Characteristics
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any physical trait that is biological in origin and/or cannot be changed but to which people assign overwhelming significance
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