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187 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Structurally, the nervous system is divided into |
Central nervous system (CNS) and Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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Central nervous system consists of the |
Brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system consists of the |
Cranial and spinal nerves |
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Peripheral pathways are either |
Afferent (ascending) or Efferent (descending) |
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Afferent pathways carry _______ impulses _______ the CNS |
sensory impulses toward the CNS |
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Efferent pathways carry _______ impulses ________ the CNS |
motor impulses away from the CNS |
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Efferent pathways innervate _____________ |
Effector organs such as skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle, as well as glands |
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The PNS is divided into what two systems? |
Somatic and autonomic |
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Somatic nervous system |
Consists of motor and sensory pathways
Regulates voluntary motor control of skeletal muscle |
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Autonomic nervous system |
Consists of motor and sensory pathways
Regulates viscera through involuntary control of organ systems |
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Autonomic nervous system is divided into what two systems? |
Sympathetic and parasympathetic |
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Two basic cells that comprise nervous tissue |
Neurons and neuroglial cells |
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Neuron |
Primary information / communication cell of the nervous system
Fuel source is glucose, but insulin is not required for glucose uptake in the CNS
Consist of neurofilaments, neurotubules, neurofibrils, and Nissl substances |
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Neuroglial cells |
Found in CNS and PNS
Provide structural support & nutrition for neurons, remove debris, increase speed of nerve impulses, and help process and store information (i.e., memory) |
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Neurofilaments and neurofibrils |
Responsible for structural support and movement of neuron processes |
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Neurotubules |
Help to transport cellular products |
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Nissl substances |
Contain endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes and are involved in protein synthesis |
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Does the CNS initially have more or just enough neurons |
More. Extra neurons that do not become in functional systems die. |
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Can neurons divide after birth? |
Some. Olfactory neurons divide throughout life. |
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Three components of a neuron |
- Cell body (soma) - Dendrites - Axons |
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Where are most neuronal cell bodies located? |
Within the CNS |
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Nuclei |
Dense, packed neuronal cell bodies in the CNS |
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Ganglia or plexuses |
Groups of neuronal cell bodies located in the PNS |
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Dendrites |
Carry impulses toward the cell body |
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Dendritic zone |
The receptive portion of a neuron that receives a stimulus and continues further conduction |
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Axons |
Carry nerve impulses away from the cell body |
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Axon hillock |
Cone-shaped, organelle free area where the axon leaves the cell body |
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Fascicles |
Axons that are bundled together in large nerves |
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Where does the action potential begin in an axon? |
In the initial segment of the axon |
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Typically, how many axons does a neuron have? |
One |
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Myelin sheath |
Insulating membrane that surrounds axons |
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Endoneurium |
Connective tissue that surrounds the myelin sheath |
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Neurilemma |
Located between the endoneurium and myelin sheath. It contains the Schwann cell that produces the myelin sheath. |
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Nodes of Ranvier |
Uninsulated gaps in the myelin sheath where electrical impulses can be conducted
Allows increased velocity of neuronal conduction
Known as saltatory conduction |
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Unmyelinated neurons |
When Schwann cells are loosely wrapped around axons
Conduction velocity is not increased |
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Where does axonal branching occur? |
At the nodes of Ranvier |
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Divergence |
When branching axons influence many different neurons |
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Convergence |
When numerous branching axons converge on and influence only one or a few neurons |
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Examples of demyelinating disorders (problems with the myelin sheath) |
- Multiple sclerosis
- Guillain-Barre syndrome |
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Does axon size influence conduction rate? |
Yes, larger axons transmit impulses faster. |
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Four types of neurons |
- Unipolar
- Pseudo unipolar
- Bipolar
- Multipolar |
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Unipolar neurons |
Have one process that branches shortly after leaving the cell body
Can be found in the retina |
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Pseudo unipolar neurons |
Have one process with the dendritic portion extending away from the CNS and the axon projects into the CNS
Typical of sensory neurons in the cranial and spinal nerves |
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Bipolar neurons
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Has a distinct dendrite process and a distinct axon process arising from the cell body.
Connects to rods / cones in the retina |
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Multipolar neurons |
- Most common
- Have multiple dendrites and a single axon
- Typical of motor neurons |
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Three types of neurons |
1. Sensory (afferent, mostly unipolar)
2. Associational (interneurons, multipolar)
3. Motor (efferent, multipolar)
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Sensory neurons |
Carry impulses from peripheral sensory receptors to the CNS |
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Associational neurons (interneurons) |
Transmit impulses from neuron to neuron (i.e., sensory to motor neurons)
Also involved in cognitive function
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Motor neurons |
Transmit impulses away from the CNS to an effector organ |
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Types of neuroglial cells |
- Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes
- Ependymal cells
- Microglia
- Schwann cell (neurolemmocyte) |
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Astrocytes |
Fill spaces between neurons and surround blood vessels in the CNS |
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Oligodendrocytes |
- Function to deposit myelin within the CNS
- Counterpart to the Schwann cell |
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Ependymal cells |
Line the CSF filled cavities of the CNS |
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Microglia |
Remove debris (phagocytosis) in the CNS |
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Schwann cell (neurolemmocyte) |
- Wraps around and covers axons in the PNS
- Form and maintain the myelin sheath |
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Wallerian degeneration |
When an axon is severed, causing the axon distal to the cut to degenerate and disappear.
The myelin sheaths reform into Schwann cells that align in a column between the cut and the effector organ
- At the proximal end repair occurs back to the next node of Ranvier only.
The cell body swells and disperses Nissl substance
7-14 days after the trauma new terminal sprouts arise from the proximal segment may enter the remaining Schwann cell pathway
Limited to myelinated fibers and typically only occurs in the PNS |
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Why is regeneration of axons limited in the CNS? |
Scar tissue forms easier and the oligodendrocytes form myelin differently |
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What factors effect nerve regeneration? |
The closer the injury to the cell body, the greater the chance the nerve will die
Inflammatory response to injury
Scar tissue formation
Type of injury - Crush injuries are less damaging than cut injuries |
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Synapse |
Regions between adjacent neurons |
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How are impulses transmitted across a synapse? |
By chemical and electrical conduction |
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Neurons that conduct impulses toward the synapse |
Presynaptic neurons |
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Neurons that conduct impulses away from the synapse |
Postsynaptic neurons |
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Four types of connections between pre- and post-synaptic neurons |
1. Between axons (axo-axonic)
2. From axon to cell body (axo-somatic)
3. From axon to dendrite (axo-dendritic)
4. Between dendrites (dendro-dendritic) |
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Neurotransmitter |
Chemical that conducts impulses across the synapse
Often formed in the neuron
Gets transported to a synaptic knob (bouton) of the presynaptic neuron's axon
Is stored in synaptic vesicles w/in the knobs
Released into the synaptic cleft by action potentials in the presynaptic neuron
Binds to neurotransmitter receptors on the postsynaptic neuron |
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Can neurons synthesize more than one neurotransmitter? |
Yes |
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Can postsynaptic membranes have more than one type of neurotransmitter receptor? |
Yes |
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Name a few neurotransmitters |
Norepinephrine
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Histamine
Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)
Serotonin |
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Two scenarios for the binding of a neurotransmitter at a receptor site |
Postsynaptic neuron may be excited (depolarized), known as excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP's)
Postsynaptic neuron may be inhibited (hyperpolarized), known as inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP's) |
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What affects whether or not an action potential will occur? |
The number and frequency of potentials the postsynaptic neuron receives (known as summation). A single EPSP will not induce an action potential |
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Temporal summation |
The effects of successive, rapid impulses received from a single neuron on the same synapse |
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Spatial summation |
The combined effects of impulses from a number of neurons on a single synapse at the same time |
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Facilitation |
The effect EPSP's on the plasma membrane potential |
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Three major divisions of the brain based on embryonic origin |
Forebrain - formed by the 2 cerebral hemispheres
Midbrain
Hindbrain - includes the cerebellum, pons, and medulla oblongata |
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What parts of the brain make up the brainstem? |
The midbrain, medulla oblongata, and pons |
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What is the function of the brainstem? |
Connects the brain hemispheres, cerebellum, and spinal cord |
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Reticular formation |
A collection of nerve cell bodies (nuclei) w/in the brainstem that regulates vital reflexes such as CV function and respiration. Also essential for maintaining wakefulness and can be involved in motor movements. |
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Plasticity |
Holds that the CNS is capable of change. For example, in children w/ brain damage some functional areas may relocate to other areas of the brain.
Plasticity decreases with age. |
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Cerebral cortex |
Largest portion of the brain
Contains cell bodies and dendrites (gray matter)
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Telencephalon |
Part of the forebrain, and consists of the cerebral cortex and basal ganglia |
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Gyri |
Numerous convolutions on the surface of the cerebrum. Increase the cortical surface area. |
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Sulci |
Grooves between gyri |
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Fissures |
Deep grooves between gyri |
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Gray matter |
Located in the cerebral cortex
Receives, integrates, stores, and transmits information |
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White matter |
Lies beneath the cerebral cortex
Composed of myelinated nerve fibers
Sends neuronal messages throughout the nervous system and body |
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Longitudinal fissure |
Separates the cerebral hemispheres |
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Prefrontal area |
Responsible for goal-oriented behavior, ability to concentrate, short term or recall memory, and elaboration of thought and inhibition on the limbic (emotional) areas of the CNS |
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Premotor area (Brodman area 6) |
Involved in programming motor movements
Also contains neurons that contribute to the basal ganglia system (extrapyramidal) |
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Primary motor area (Brodman area 4) |
- Located at precentral gyrus
- Forms the primary voluntary motor area
- Causes specific body muscles to move |
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Contralateral control |
How cerebral impulses control function on the opposite side of the body |
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Broca speech area |
Usually on the left hemisphere
Responsible for motor aspects of speech
Damage results in expressive aphasia or dysphasia |
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Parietal lobe |
Contains major area for somatic sensory input such as storage, analysis, and interpretation of stimuli |
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Association fibers |
Facilitates communication between motor and sensory areas |
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Occipital lobe |
- Contains primary visual cortex.
- Receives input from the retinas. |
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Temporal lobe |
Primary auditory cortex
Contains Wernicke's area. Damage can cause receptive aphasia or dysphasia.
Also major area for long-term memory, balance, taste, and smell |
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Corpus callosum |
Connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres and is essential in coordination of activities between the hemispheres
Can be cut as a last resort to prevent epileptic loci (site of seizure activity) from spreading to the other hemisphere. Cutting it can cause temporary aphasia and paralysis. |
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Basal ganglia |
- Major cerebral nuclei
- Include the corpus striatum and amygdala |
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Basal ganglia system (extrapyramidal system) |
Exerts a fine-tuning effect on motor movements
Defects of basal ganglia cause diseases like Parkinson's and Huntington's
Disorders are characterized by involuntary or exaggerated motor movements |
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Limbic system |
Is an extension or modification of the olfactory system
Effects primitive behavioral responses, visceral reaction to emotion, feeding behaviors, biologic rhythms, and the sense of smell
Consolidates memory through a reverberating circuit |
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Diencephalon |
- Surrounded by the cerebrum
- Made up of 4 divisions: Epithalamus, thalamus, hypothalamus, and subthalamus |
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Epithalamus |
Creates the roof of the 3rd ventricle
Contains pineal body, which secretes melatonin and maintains circadian rhythms of the sleep wake cycle |
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Thalamus |
Largest part of diencephalon
Surrounds the 3rd ventricle
Major integrating center for afferent impulses to the cerebral cortex with the exception of olfaction
Serves as a relay center for sensory aspects of motor info from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to cortical motor areas
Cerebral cortical info also projects to the thalamus, creating reverberating circuits |
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Hypothalamus |
Forms the base of the diencephalon
Maintains a constant internal environment and implements behavioral patterns
Controls ANS function, regulates body temp, regulates endocrine system function, and regulates emotional expression
Exerts influence via endocrine system and neural pathways |
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Subthalamus |
Contains subthalamic nucleus, which is part of the basal ganglia system |
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Midbrain (mesencephalon) |
Controls voluntary and involuntary visual and auditory motor movements (i.e., tracking a finger with the eyes or moving the head to hear better)
Contains substantia nigra, which synthesizes dopamine. Substantia nigra dysfunction is related to Parkinson's and drug addiction.
Contains tracts of 3rd and 4th cranial nerves and is traversed by the cerebral aqueduct that carries CSF. |
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Metencephalon |
Major structures include the cerebellum and pons |
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Cerebellum |
Has 2 cerebellar hemispheres covered with convolutions called folia
Hemispheres are connected by the vermis (worm)
Responsible for conscious and unconscious muscle synergy and for maintaining posture and balance
Damage causes same sided (ipsilateral) loss of equilibrium, balance, and motor coordination
It has ipsilateral control of the body |
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Pons |
Transmits info from the cerebellum to the brainstem nuclei and relays motor info from the cerebral cortex to the contralateral cerebral hemisphere
Controls respiration
Contains nuclei of cranial nerves V - VIII |
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Myelencephalon |
Contains the medulla oblongata
Controls reflex activities such as heart rate, respirations, BP, coughing, sneezing, swallowing, and vomiting
Contains nuclei of cranial nerves IX - XII
A major portion of the descending motor pathways crosses to the contralateral side (decussates) at the inferior medulla oblongata |
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Spinal cord |
Protected by vertebral column
Is a long nerve tract connecting the brain and body
Conducts somatic and autonomic reflexes, provides motor pattern control centers, and serves as a sensory and motor modulation center
Ends at the 1st or 2nd lumbar vertebrae in adults |
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Conus medullaris |
The cone shaped end of the spinal cord |
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Cauda equina |
Bundle of spinal nerves at the end of the spinal cord |
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Filum terminale |
Thin filament anchor going from the conus medullaris to the coccyx |
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Sections of the spinal cord |
8 cervical
12 thoracic
5 lumbar
5 sacral
1 coccygeal |
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Gray matter of the spinal cord |
Appears as a butterfly shape in a cross-section specimen
Divided into 3 regions:
- Posterior (dorsal) horn - Gray (lateral) horn - Anterior (ventral) horn |
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Posterior horn |
Comprised of interneurons and axons from sensory neurons
Contains the substantia gelatinosa, which is involved in pain transmission |
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Gray horn |
Contains cell bodies involved with the ANS |
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Anterior horn |
Contains nerve cell bodies for efferent pathways leaving the spinal cord by way of spinal nerves |
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White matter of spinal cord |
Surrounds the gray matter
Forms ascending and descending pathways called spinal tracts
Divided into 3 columns:
- Anterior column - Lateral column - Posterior column |
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Spinothalamic tract |
Carries nerve impulses from the spine to the thalamus |
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Reflex arcs |
Respond to stimuli and provide protective circuitry for motor output
Requires a receptor, an afferent (sensory) neuron, and efferent (motor) neuron, and an effector muscle or gland |
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Spinal cord afferent pathways |
Transmit info from peripheral receptors with the info terminating in the cerebral or cerebellar cortex, or both |
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Spinal cord efferent pathways |
Primarily relay info from the cerebrum to the brainstem or spinal cord |
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Upper motor neurons |
Motor pathways completely contained w/in the CNS
Primary roles are to direct, influence, and modify reflex arcs, lower level control centers, and motor (and some sensory) neurons
Form synapses with interneurons, which then form synapses with lower motor neurons before projecting to the periphery
Damage initially causes paralysis but partial recovery can occur w/in days or weeks |
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Lower motor neurons |
Are cranial and spinal efferent neurons
Responsible for direct influence on muscles
Their cell bodies lie in the gray matter of the spinal cord but their processes extend into the PNS
Damage leads to permanent paralysis most of the time unless peripheral nerves are able to regenerate |
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Motor units |
A motor neuron and the skeletal muscle it stimulates |
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Neuromuscular (myoneuronal) junction |
The junction between the axon of the motor neuron and the plasma membrane of the muscle cell |
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Four clinically relevant motor pathways (tracts) |
1. Lateral corticospinal 2. Corticobulbar 3. Basal ganglia 4. Vestibulospinal |
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Corticobulbar tract |
Composed of the upper motor neurons of the cranial nerves
Is a 2 neuron white matter motor pathway connecting the cerebral cortex to the brainstem
Decussates in the medulla to form the lateral corticospinal tract of the spinal cord
Innervates cranial motor nuclei for the eyes, face, tongue, throat, and neck movement |
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Lateral corticospinal tract |
Is a descending motor pathway that begins in the cerebral cortex, decussates in the pyramids of the lower medulla and proceeds down the contralateral side of the spinal cord.
It's axons (upper motor neurons) leave the tract through the anterior horn of the spinal cord to go to specific interneurons or motor neurons
It controls fine movement of ipsilateral limbs |
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Which cranial motor nerves receive contralateral innervation? |
Facial (spinal), accessory, and hypoglossal |
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Basal ganglia |
Modulate motor movement by inhibiting and exciting spinal activity |
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Vestibulospinal tract |
An extrapyrimidal tract
Causes the extensor muscles of the body to rapidly contract. Is most dramatic when someone falls backwards. |
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3 clinically relevant sensory (afferent) pathways |
1. Posterior (dorsal) column 2. Anterior spinothalamic 3. Lateral spinothalamic
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Posterior dorsal column pathway |
Carries upper / lower body fine touch, two point discrimination, and proprioceptive info
Formed by a 3 neuron chain |
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Anterior and lateral spinothalamic pathways |
Responsible for vague touch, pain, and temperature |
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Galea aponeurotica |
A thick, fibrous band of tissue overlying the cranium between the frontal and occipital muscles
Adds protection to the bony skull |
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Subgaleal space |
Blood can be shunted here in cases of ICP
Common site for placement of wound drains after IC surgery |
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3 protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord |
1. Dura mater 2. Arachnoid 3. Pia mater
Collectively these are known as the meninges |
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Dura mater |
Composed of 2 layers with venous sinuses between them
Outer layer is the periosteum
Inner layer (dura or meningeal layer) forms a rigid, double thickness membranous plate that supports and separates brain structures. Compression against these membranes can cause damage to brain structures. |
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Falx cerebri |
One of the membranous plates of the dura mater
Dips between the cerebral hemispheres at the longitudinal fissure |
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Tentorium cerebelli |
One of the membranous plates of the dura mater
Separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum |
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Arachnoid membrane |
Located below the dura mater
Has a filmy, weblike structure
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Subdural space |
Lies between the dura and arachnoid
Small bridging veins w/out much support traverse this space and can cause subdural hematomas if damaged |
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Subarachnoid space |
Lies between the arachnoid and pia mater
Contains CSF
Damage to intracranial vessels can cause subarachnoid hemorrhage. This causes meningeal irritation that results in neck stiffness, a positive Kernig sign, and lower back pain |
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Pia mater |
Closely adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord
Supports blood vessels that serve brain tissues |
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Choroid plexuses |
Produce CSF
Arise from the pia mater |
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Denticulate ligaments |
Extensions of the meninges that anchor the spinal cord to the vertebrae |
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Epidural space |
Between the dura mater and the skull
Common place for epidural hematomas as a result of falls |
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CSF |
A clear, colorless fluid that the intracranial and spinal cord structures float in to protect them from jolts and blows
Also prevents the brain from tugging on meninges, nerve roots, and blood vessels
Gets reabsorbed into venous circulation through arachnoid villi
Samples are obtained by lumbar puncture in the subarachnoid space or by placing an intraventricular catheter |
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Vertebral column |
Composed of 33 vertebrae
- 7 cervical - 12 thoracic - 5 lumbar - 5 fused sacral - 4 fused coccygeal |
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Intervertebral disc |
Between each interspace except at the fused sacral and coccygeal vertebrae
Absorbs shocks to prevent vertebral damage
Damage can cause disc rupture or herniation |
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What percent of cardiac output does the brain receive each minute? |
20% |
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What is a primary regulator of blood flow in the CNS, causing vasodilation and ensuring good blood supply? |
CO2 |
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From where does the brain receive its arterial blood supply? |
1. Internal carotid arteries 2. Vertebral arteries |
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Arterial circle (Circle of Willis) |
Compensates for reduced blood flow |
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Blood brain barrier |
Cellular structures that selectively inhibit certain substances in the blood from entering the spaces of the brain or CSF |
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How many pairs of spinal nerves are there? |
31 |
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Mixed nerves |
Spinal nerves. They are called this b/c they have both sensory and motor neurons.
The sensory and mother neurons converge to form one spinal nerve . They then divide into anterior and posterior rami (branches).
The anterior rami branch into peripheral nerves and the posterior rami are distributed to specific areas of the body.
So, sensory signals arise from specific sites associated with a specific spinal cord segment. |
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Dermatomes |
Specific areas of skin innervation at spinal cord segments. |
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Cranial nerves |
Categorized as peripheral nerves
Most are mixed, but some are purely motor or purely sensory
Arise from nuclei in brain and brainstem |
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Motor component of the ANS |
Is a 2 neuron system
Consists of pre- (myelinated) and post- (unmyelinated) ganglionic neurons
Coordinates / maintains steady state among visceral organs and glands
Is an involuntary system
Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems |
|
The sympathetic nervous system functions to |
Mobilize energy stores in times of need (i.e., fight or flight)
Epi and norepi are mediators of fight or flight
Adrenergic transmission |
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From where does the SNS receive innervation? |
From T1 - L2 (thoracolumbar division) |
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Preganglionic axons of the SNS |
Form synapses in the sympathetic ganglia
Form pathways called splanchic nerves, which lead to collateral ganglia |
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Parasympathetic nervous system functions to |
Conserve and restore energy
Preganglionic fibers travel to ganglia close to organs they innervate before forming synapses with postganglionic neurons |
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From where does the PNS receive innervation? |
In the cranial nerve region and sacral region of the spinal cord (craniosacral region) |
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Acetylcholine |
Is a neurotransmitter
Released by sympathetic preganglionic fibers and parasympathetic pre- and post-ganglionic fibers
Cholinergic transmission |
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Name some catecholamines |
1. Epinephrine 2. Norepinephrine 3. Dopamine |
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What gland physiologically and biochemically resembles the SNS and releases catecholamines? |
Adrenal medulla gland |
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What are the 2 types of adrenergic receptors? |
Alpha and beta |
|
What action is produced by alpha adrenergic receptors? |
Alpha 1: Excitation and stimulation
Alpha 2: Relaxation or inhibition |
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What action is produced by beta adrenergic receptors? |
Beta 1: Increased HR and contractility and the release of renin from the kidneys
Beta 2:
Beta 3: Mediate lypolysis and thermogenesis and are up-regulated in CV disease |
|
Primary response of norepinephrine |
Stimulation of Alpha 1 adrenergic receptors that cause vasoconstriction |
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What are the Dopamine receptors? |
D1 - D5 |
|
What are the functions of Dopamine receptors? |
Pleasure Motivation Cognition Memory Learning Fine motor control |
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Does epi cause vasoconstriction or vasodilation? |
Vasodilation |
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What are the effects on the GI system with SNS versus PNS stimulation? |
SNS: Decreased peristalsis
PNS: Increased peristalsis |
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CT scan |
Creates 2 dimensional images from multiple x-rays using computer assist
Capable of showing find distinctions in shape, size, and densities of various tissues
|
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MRI |
Uses a magnetic field instead of x-rays
Able to provide reconstruction of images in 3 views |
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PET scan |
Uses CT imaging and injectable radioactive substances or inhaled gases to produce images
The injected or inhaled substances deposit into tissues, showing physiologic and metabolic processes |
|
Brain scan |
Radionuclide substances are introduced into the bloodstream for tissue uptake and evaluation |
|
Isotope cisternography |
Radionuclide imaging technique used to evaluate CSF flow. |
|
Angiography |
A small catheter is introduced at the femoral artery
Contrast dye is injected
Serial x-rays are then taken
Flow of the dye is evaluated |
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Myelogram |
Evaluates intraspinal anatomy
Radiographic dye is placed in the spinal region
X-rays are then taken
Flow of the dye is evaluated |
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Echoencephalography (ultrasound) |
Uses sound waves to evaluate the brain |
|
Electroencephalograph (EEG) |
A recording of electrical impulses of the brain via scalp electrodes
Helpful in locating origins of seizure activity and in determining if a person is brain dead |
|
CSF analysis |
Used to determine CSF pressure, constituents such as protein and electrolytes, and for cultures |