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770 Cards in this Set
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Ecological services of forestry
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1) habitat for species
2) act as carbon sinks 3) reduce soil erosion as they serve as a watershed (absorbing and releasing controlled amounts of water) 4) affecting local climate patterns 5) providing energy and nutrient cycling 6) purifying air and water |
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Tree plantations
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large, managed commercial/government-owned farms with uniformly aged trees of one species (monoculture)
Trees may be genetically modified hybrids Have short rotation cycles so they are economically efficient 5% of the world's forest are these, but 20% of current world wood production These forests yield much more wood per acre than old wood forests; but also have less biodiversity These have no decaying wood (which is important for maintaining an ecosystem) |
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Old Growth Forests
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Forests that have not been seriously impacted by human activities for hundred of years
Rich in biodiversity; have indicator species; fungal ecosystem; "pit and mound" topography due to trees falling and creating microenvironments by recyling carbon matter directly to the soil Decaying wood and ground layer that provides a rich carbon sink Depletion of these increases the risk of climatic change Contain trees w/ high economic value, but that take a long time to grow (mahogany, wood, etc) |
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Forest Fires
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These are allowed to burn by law!
Forest fires are increasing in the USA (4% more; total area burned by them is 7x greater than previously) Strongly correlated to temperatures -> warmer summers means more fires A correlation exists between early arrivals of the spring snowmelt in the mountainous regions and the incidence of large forest fires. (earlier snowmelt -> longer dry season -> more opp. for fires) |
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Crown Fires
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occur in forests that have not had surface fires for a long time
Extremely hot Burn entire trees and leap from treetop to treetop Kills wildlife, increases soil erosion, destroys structures |
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Ground Fires
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Occur underground, burn partially decayed leaves
Hard to detect/extinguish Common in peat bogs |
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Surface Fires
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Burns undergrowth/leaf litter/young trees
Spares older trees/many wild animals Releases minerals back into the soil profile Stimulates germination for some species w/ serotinous cones Helps keep pathogens and insects in check Allows vegetation to grow in newly developed clearings (this feeds animals) |
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Methods to control fires
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Two methods:
1) Prevention- burning permits, closing forests when chance of a fire is high (drought), educating the public 2) Prescribed burning- purposely setting controlled surface fires to thin out underbrush in high-risk areas; must be cafedul |
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Healthy Forest Initiative (2003)
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Allows timber copanies to cut down economically valuble trees in most national forests for 10 years
Timber companies must in turn clear out small, fire-prone trees and underbrush May have consequences of increasing fires by accumulation of slash and increasing the number of fire prone young trees |
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Deforestation (definition)
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The conversion of forested areas to nonforested areas
They are then used as: grasslands for grazing, commercial logging, tree plantations, urban sprawl |
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Natural Deforestation
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Caused by tsunamis, forest fires, volcanic eruptions, glaciation, and desertification
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Deforestation (results)
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1) extinction of species w/ specialized niches
2) reduces the available habitats for migratory species 3) decreases soil fertility brought about by erosion 4) allows runoff into aquatic systems 5) increases CO2 in atmosphere and changes local climate pattern |
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Even-Age management
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
essentially the practice of tree plantations |
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Uneven-Age management
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Maintain a stand with trees of all ages from seedling to mature |
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Selective Cutting
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Specific trees in an area are chosen and cut |
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High Grading
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Cutting and removing only the largest and best trees |
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Shelterwood cutting
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Removes all mature trees in an area within a limited time |
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Seed Tree Cutting
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Majority of trees are removed except for scattered, seed-producing trees used to regenerate new strands |
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Clear-Cutting
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
All of the trees in an area are cut at the same time This technique is used to cultivate shade intollerant tree species |
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Strip-Cutting
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(method currently employed to manage and harvest trees)
Clear-cutting a strip of trees that follows the land contour The corridor is allowed to regenerate |
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Deforestation (effect on Hydrologic cycle)
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Alters the cycle: potentially increasing or decreasing the amount of water in the soil and groundwater
This affects the recharge of aquifers and the moisture in the atmosphere Shrinking forest cover lessens the landscape's capacity to intercept, retain, and transport precipitation These become sources of surface water runoff -> faster transport of surface water leads to flash flooding and more extreme floods than would occur w/ the forest cover Decreased evapotranspiration |
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Tree plantations (Pros)
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1) Practical method for trees that require full or moderate sunlight in order to grow
2) Genetically improved species of trees that resist disease and grow faster can be grown 3) Inceases economic return on investments 4) produces a high yield of timber at the lower cost, and provides jobs |
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Tree plantations (Cons)
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1) reduces the economic value of the land
2) Causes habitat fragmentation 3) Reduces biodiversity 4) If done of steeply sloped areas, will over cause soil erosion, water pollution, and flooding 5) promotes monoculture and tree plantations that are prone to disease or infestation through lack of diversity |
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Evapotranspiration (when decreased by deforestation)
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1) lessens atmospheric moisture and precipitation levels
2) affects precip levels downwing from deforestation site |
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Impoverished School
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(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)
major cause of deforestation is the growing number of poor |
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Neoclassical School
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(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)
believe that the major cause is "open access property rights" |
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Political-Ecology School
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(school of though w/ regards to causes of deforestation)
believes that the major cause is due to entrepreneurs |
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Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest
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- centered on how deforestation affects nutrient cycles. many conclusions made:
1) undisturbed mature forest ecosystem is in dynamic equilibrium w/ respect to chemical nutrients 2) inflow/outflow of nutrients = low compared with levels of nutrients being recycled within the ecosystem 3) when deforestation occured, water runoff increased; soil erosion increased -> large outflow of nutrients -> water pollution 4) nutrient loss could be reduced by clearing trees and vegatation in horizontal strips |
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Rate of carbon dioxide being released into atmosphere as a result of deforestation
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1.6 billion metric tons per year
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Amount of land forests cover worldwide
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1/3 of all land surface
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Where are most forests located?
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70% North America, Russia, and South America
80% are closed canopy, 20% are open canopy |
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Amount of land forests cover in US
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1/3 of land
1/3 of that is federal; 2/3 is nonfederal |
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The Forest Service
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155 national forests, 22 grasslands
Established as an agency of the US Dept. of Agriculture Manages public lands in national forests/grasslands Protects and manages natural resources on NAtional Forest System lands; sponsers forest research; provides international resources |
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Percent of mammal/reptile species found in forests
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80%
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Forest Reserve Act (1891)
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Gave the president authority to establish forest reservations from public domain lands
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Multiple Use and Sustained Yield Act (1960,1968)
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Directs the US Secretary of Agriculture to manage national forests for recreation, wildlife havitat, and timber production through principles of multiple use and sustainable yield
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Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA, 1976)
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Along w/ the Taylor Grazing Act, outlines policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands in the US. Grants federal govt jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands. Grants Bureau of Land Mgmt. responsibility to manage all public lands -- multiple use policy
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Forest and Rangeland Renewable Resources Planning Act (FRRRPA)
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aka National Forest Management Act
Requires Sec. of Agriculture to develop a management program for national forest lands based on multiple-use and sustained yield principles. |
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National Forests Management Act (1976)
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Authorized the creation and use of a special fun in situations involving the salvage of insect-infested, dead, damaged, or downed timber and to remove associated trees for stand improvement
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Rangelands
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are being compromised by overgrazing and desertification
The govt is trying to sustain these Rangelands provide valuable grazing lands for livestock and wildlife Source of high-quality water, clean air, and open spaces These are the foundation for low-input, fully renewable food production systems for the cattle industry |
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Overgrazing
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theme of the essay "tragedy of the commons"
occurs when plants are exposed to grazing for too long without sufficient recovery periods Plants considered overgrazed when it is regrazed before the roots recover Overgrazing can reduce root growth by up to 90% |
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Overgrazing (Consequences)
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1) Pastures = less productive
2) Soils = less organic matter -> become less fertile 3) soil porosity decreases 4) Infiltration rate and moisture holding capacity of soil drops 5) soil is more susceptible to soil compaction 6) good plants = stressed, weedier plants survive better in harsher conditions 7) Biodiversity decreases - reduces native vegetation, leads to erosion 8) eutrophication increases due to cattle waste runoff 9) predator-prey relationships thrown off balance 10) sustainability of the land is threatened |
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Desertification
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Conversion of marginal rangeland/cropland to a more desert like land type
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Causes of Desertification
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1) overgrazing
2) soil erosion 3) prolonged drought 4) climate changes 5) overuse of resources (nutrients + water) |
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Steps to Desertification
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1) overgrazing
2) trampled soil washed away (ground doesn't hold water anymore) 3) remaining vegetation dies/taken 4) soil becomes unsuitable so have anything grow in it 5) topsoil is blow away by wind |
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% of land that Rangelands cover in the USA
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40% -> dominant type of land in arid and semiarid regions
80% of lands in western US are rangelands |
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Methods of Rangeland Management
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1) Controlling the number and distribution of livestock so that the carrying capacity is not exceeded
2) Restoring degraded rangeland 3) Moving livestock from one area to another to allow the rangeland to recover 4) fencing off riparian (stream) areas to reduce damage to these sensitive areas 5) suppresing growth of invasive species 6) Replanting barren rangeland with native grass seed to reduce soil erosion 7) Providing supplemental feed at selected sites 8) Locating water holes, water tanks and salt blocks at strategic points that don't degreade the environment |
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Livestock grazing facts
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this is the fifth-rated threat to endangered plant species
the fourth rated threat for all endangered wildlife #1 leading threat to all endangered species in arid regions of the US |
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Renewable Resources Planning Act (RPA, 1974)
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Mandates periodic assessments of forests and rangelands in the US
directs that the assessment be conducted by the US Forest Service and consider a broad range of renewable resources |
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Public Rangelands Improvement Act
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Established and reaffirmed a commitment to manage, maintain, and improve rangelands so that they become as productive as possible
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Taylor Grazing Act (1934)
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Requires grazing permits on federal land
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Buildings in USA (energy use)
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1/3 of all energy
2/3 of all energy in the USA |
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Green building approaches
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- energy conservation
- indoor air quality - resource-efficient building techniques and materials - water conservation through the use of xeriscaping - designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycles materials - placing buildings whenever possible near public transportation hubs that use mutitude of venues (light rail, subways, and park rides - creating pedetrian friendly environments - Preserving historical/cultural aspects of the community |
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Urbanization
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refers to the movement of people from rural areas to cities and the environmental changes that accompany it
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Areas with largest growth in urbanization
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Asia and Africa
Africa has a larger urban population than North America Nations with the most rapid increases in urbanization are those w/ the most rapid economic growth |
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USA urban population percentage
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75% of all Americans are part of the urban population
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Urbanization (Pros)
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1) Uses less land -> less impact on the environment
2) better educational delivery system 3) mass transit systems decrease reliance on fossil fuels - commuting distances = shorter 4) better sanitation systems 5) large numbers of people = high tax revenue 6) urban areas attract industry due to availability of raw materials, distribution networks, customers, and labor pool 7) pollution comes from point sources - enabling focused remediation techniques |
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Urbanization (Cons)
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1) Impact on land is more concentrated/pronounced (water runoff, flooding)
2) Sanitation systems have greater volumes of wastes to deal with 3) Commuting times are longer 4) Solid-waste buildup is greater -> landfill space becomes scarce and costly 5) Wealthy move away, this strains tax base 6) Population increase may be higher than job growth 7) Pollution high due to high population levels |
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Transportation Infrastructure
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Transportation can be via roadways or water channels
Areas without transportation infrastructure suffers an ecosystem impact |
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Federal Highway System
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contains about 160,000 miles of roadway important to the nation's economy, defense, and mobility
Though they receive substantial federal funding, the roads are apart of the STATE that they are in System serves all major US cities. Distribution of all goods and services involve a highway at some point |
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Federal Aid Highway Act (1956)
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Authorized contruction of the Interstate Highway system. Under the new law, the fed govt agreed to fund 90% of the construction costs for the interstates. States provide other funds, administer construciton projects, and own/operate the completed interstate highways
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Channel
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(aka strait) - a relatively narrow body of water that connects two larger bodies of water
can be natural or artifical repeated dredging is often necessary because of silting Maintained by the US Dept of Interior and monitered by the Coast Gaurd |
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Canals
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Two Largest in world:
- Panama canal (pacific ocean to atlantic) - Suez canal (Red Sea w/ mediterranean); 8% of world's shipping goes through here |
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Roadless Areas
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Places where no roads have been built and where no logging or other developemnt can occur
Havens for fish and wildlife whose habitats have been fragmented/destroyed Provide habitats to 1600 threatened/endangered species and include watersheds that have clean drinking water. This rule protects 2% of total land base in the USA |
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Roadless Area Conservation Rule (2001)
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this rule places 1/3 of the national forest system's total acreage off-limits to road building and logging
Protects unspoiled land in 39 states - creates jobs and preserves fun activities in these lands |
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Bureau of Land Management
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manages 262 million acres of land (1/8 of the total land in the USA)
Also responsible for wildfire management Most of their lands are in Western america and in Alaska - lands are dominated by extensive grasslands, forest, high mountains, arctic tundra, and deserts. Manages all aspects of these site - activities, paleontological, historical |
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Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976)
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Outlined policy concerning the use and preservation of public lands
Granted federal jurisdiction on consequences of mining on public lands |
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National Parks
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1,100 national parks in the world today - not all of them receieve proper protection
Largest national park land in the USA is in Alaska US national parks threatened by high demand by large numbers of visitors -> leads to congestion -> eroded trails, disrupting noise, and pollution |
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Yellowstone National Park Act (1872)
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Preserves the watershed of the Yellowstone Rive "for benefit of all people"
For the first time, public lands were preserved for public enjoyment and were to be administered by the federal government |
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National Park Service Act (1916)
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Established that national parks are to be maintained in a manner that leaves them unimpaired for future generations and established the National Park Service to manage the parks
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Outdoor Recreation Act (1963)
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Laid out the Interior Department's role as coordinator of all federal agencies for programs affecting the conservation and development of rereation resources
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Wilderness Act (1964)
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Wilderness was defined by its lack of noticeable human modification or presence.
Federal officials are required to majage wilderness areas in a maner conducive to their retention of their wilderness character |
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Land and Water Conservation Fund Act (1965)
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Established a fun, administered by the National Park Service to assist the states and federal agencies in meeting present and future outdoor recreation demands and needs of the American people
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National Trails System Act
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Established a national system of recreational, scienic, and historic trails
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Wildlife Refuges
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1st was Pelican Island, off Florida - used to protect breeding birds (Roosevelt)
Refuges initally created to protect endangered/at risk wildlife Now there are 547 = Managed by the US Fish and Wildlife Service |
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Wetlands
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Areas that are covered by water and support plants that can grow in water-saturated soil
High plant productivity supports a rich diversity of animal life Amount in US reduced from 10% to 5% Wetland loss is due to conversion of land to agriculture as well as urbanization Natural water purification system - removes sediments, nutrients, and toxins from flowing water |
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Amount of endangered species in US that spend their part of their life in wetlands
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1/3
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Wetlands along lakes and ocean
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Stabilize shorelines and reduce damage caused by storm surges
Reduce the risks of flooding and reduce saltwater intrusion |
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Fens
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wetlands characterized by continuous sources of groundwater rcih in magnesium and calcium -> makes fen alkaline
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Fen Groundwater
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comes from glaciers that have melted, depositing their water in layers of gravel and sand
Water sits upon layers of soil that are nonpermeable -> water is then forced to flow sideways along surface when it picks up minerals along its path |
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Bog
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Type of wetland that accumulates acidic peat
these are located in cold, temperate climates usually in boreal forests like russia usually low in nutrients and are highly acidic -> carnivorous plants use insects as nutrient source since nutrient quality here is low |
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Peat
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Deposit of dead plant material that can be dried and burned for fuel!
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Preservation/Sustainable
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To keep or maintain intact
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Remediation
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The act/process of correcting a fault or deficiency
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Mitigation
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to moderate or alleviate in force or intensity
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Restoration
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To restore to its former good condition
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Ecosystem Restoration
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Involves management actions designed to facilitate to trecovery or reestablishment of native ecosystems
A central premise of ecological restoration is: restoration of natural systems to conditions consistent w/ their evolutionary environments will prevent their further degradation while simultaneously conserving their native plants and animals |
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Land Preservation options (part 1)
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1) careful monitering and enforcement
2) user-pay approach for extracting resources 3) eliminate govt subsidies to companies that extract publicly owned resources 4) Institute fair compensation for resources extracted from public resources (the products from the resources must be sold at full market value) 5) Uneven-Aged management forestry -> these practices foster maintaining a variety of tree species at various ages/sizes. Fosters biodiversity |
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Land Preservation options (part 2)
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7) Reduce road building into uncut fores areas
8) rely on more sustainable tree-cutting methods: selective cutting and strip cutting 9) institute proper zoning 10) grow timber on longer rotations |
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Mining
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Removing mineral resources from the groun
Can involve underground mines, drilling, room-and-pillar mining, and mountaintop removal |
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Mining (Environmental effects and issues)
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1) mine wastes- acids and toxins
2) displacement of native species 3) reclamation of land and recycling |
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Processing
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Removing ore from gangue
Involves transportation, processing, purification, and manufacturing |
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Processing (Environmental Effects and Issues)
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All types of pollution:
1) Air 2) Water 3) Noise 4) Soil Human health concerns |
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Gangue
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the commercially worthless mineral matter associated with economically valuable metallic minerals in a deposit
processing removes good stuff from gangue |
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Before extraction
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Economic decisions that gauge the profitability of an organization are made:
1) amount of ore at site 2) conventration 3) type of mining required 4) cost of transporting ore to a processing facility 5) cost of reclamation |
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Site Development
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Samples are taken from an area to determine the quality and quantity of minerals in a location
Roads and equiptment are brought in |
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Surface mining
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(Extraction Method)
Earth moving equipment is used. this is a safe form of mining and a cost-effective one topsoil and vegetation are removed; air quality issues develop; lots of waste materials involved; pits are dug below the water table so groundwater is pumped out (affects wetlands) |
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Underground mining
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(Extraction Method)
Large shafts dug into Earth Less surface destruction; less waste rock VERY UNSAFE! Acid mine drainage containing pyrites and other sulfides are produced -> affecting air and water quality |
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In-Situ Leaching
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(Extraction Method)
Small holes are drilled into the site. Water based chemical solvents are used to flush out desired minerals Minimal waste rock; less expensive (rocks don't have to be broken/removed); less required remediation; less surface ground disturbance Fluids injected into the Earth are toxic and enter the groundwater supply |
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Smelting
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Methods by which a metal is obtained from ore, either as an element or as a simple compound
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Number of minerals extracted/used each year in the USA
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2 billion tons
USA importants more than 50% of its most needed minerals USA, Germany, Russia = 8% of world pop, use 75% of metals (US uses 20%) |
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What happens as mineral reserves become depleted?
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Lower grades of ore are mined which causes more processing and consequently more pollution
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Amount of Earth' crude oil reserves depleted
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45%-70%
We only have enough for about 50 more years |
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Amount of oil US uses each year/uses stats
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30% of the oil extracted each year
2/3 of oil is used for transportation 1/4 used in industry |
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Coal
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World's single largest source of fuel used to produce electricity
Global coal reserves are estimated to last about 300 years @ current levels of extraction |
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World's largest producer of Coal
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CHINA!!!!!!
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Natural Gas
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Most of these reserves are in the Middle East
The US possesses 3% of these reserves - they can last 75 more years! |
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General Mining Law
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Grants free access to individuals and corporations to prospect for minerals in public domain lands and allows them, upon making a discovery, to stake a claim on that deposit
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Surface mining Control and Reclamation Act
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Established a program for regulating surface coal mining and reclamation activities
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Bottom Trawling
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Uses a funnel-shaped net to drag the ocean bottom -> species not wanted is called bycatch
analagous to clear-cutting forests |
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Drift Net
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Long expanses of nets that hang down in water
traps turtles, seabirds, marine mammals. dolphins and whales are killed by these There has been a ban on these that are longer than 1.5 miles |
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Long Line Fishing
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Placing very long lines w/ thousands of baited hooks
Swordfish, tuna, cod endangers sea turtles, pilot whales, and dolphins |
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Purse Seine
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Surrounds large schools of fish spotted by aircraft w/ a large net
Net is then drawn tight |
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Ocean Productivity
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Generally low and results from spatial separation of required plant nutrients
Light is restricted to surface waters 1% of all human food 10% of world's protein source |
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Which country is responsible for the most fish harvesting from the oceans?
(A) India (B) America (C) Bangladesh (D) China (E) Venezuela |
(D) China (1/3)
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What is 1/3 of the total fish catch used for?
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fish oil, fish mean, and animal feed
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Maximum Sustained Yield
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The largest amount of marine organisms that can be continually harvested without causing the population to crash
Yield generally occurs when a population is maintained at half the carrying capacity |
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Methods to manage fisheries in a sustainable manner (Part 1)
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1) Regulate locations and number of fish farms - also, moniter their pollution output
2) Encourage the production of herbivorous fish species 3) Require and enforce labeling of fish products that were raised or caught according to sustainable methods 4) Set catch limits FAR BELOW maximum sustainable yields 5) eliminate govt subsidies for commercial fishing 6) PRevent importation of fish from countries that don't use sustainable methods |
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Methods to manage fisheris in a sustainable manner (Part 2)
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7) Place trading sanctions on foreign countries that do not respect the marine habitat, including countries that hunt whales
8) Assess fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from public waters 9) Increase the number of marine sanctuaries and no-fishing areas 10)Ban the throwing back of bycatch 11) Increase penalties for fishing techniques that don't allow escape of bycatch 12) Moniteor and destroy invasive species transported through ship ballast |
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Methods to resotre habitats suitable for freshwater fish
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1) planting native vegetation on stream banks
2) rehabilitating in-stream hibitats 3) controlling erosion 4) controlling invasive species |
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Aquaculture
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(aka mariculture/fish farming)
includes the commercial growing of aquatic organisms for food Involves stocking, feeding, protection from predators, and harvesting this is growing!!!!!! most comes from less developed countries For this to be profitable, the species must be marketable, inexpensive to raise, trophically efficient, and mature quickly, and disease resistant creates monoculture - reduces biodiversity within habitats and requires large levels of nutrients in the water |
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Advantages to Aquaculture
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1) cold-blooded organisms convert more feed to usable protein
2) produces significantly more protein than just catching fish 3) offers possibilities for sustainable protein-rich food production and for economic development to local communities |
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Aquaculture (CONS)
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When on a large scale, this can happen:
1) pose several threats to marine and coastal biodiversity 2) creates wide-scale destruction and degradation of natural habitats 3) releaes nutrients/antibiotics in aquaculture wastes |
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Fish and Wildlife Act
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Established a comprehensive national fish and shellfish resource policy directed primarily to industry
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World Bank
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Source of finanacial and technical assistance (owned by 184 member countries) to developing countries around the world
Provides low-interest loans, interest-free credit, and grants to developing countries for: education, health, infrastructure, communications, and environmental issues The greatest single source of funds for large dam projects |
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Objectives of World Bank (in environmental areas)
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1) improving the quality of life
2) improviing the quality of growth 3) protecting the quality of the regional and global commons through the "greening" of investments in agriculture, water sanitation, and other environmental products |
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Tragedy of Commons
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Garrett Hardin
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Chronically undernourished people are those who receive appx. _______ calories per day
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2000
normal people = over 3000 |
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Greatest threat to the success of a species
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Loss of habitat
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Majority of nutrients and calories in the average human diet come from which three sources
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wheat, corn, and rice
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Planting trees/shrubs between rows of crops is an example of
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alley cropping
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One area of the world that is NOT expected to increase food production soon
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Sub-saharan africa
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Percentage of the crops grown in the world today that are transgenic or genetically modified
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>75%
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What % has urban population increased during the last 150 years
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100%
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Chronically undernourshed people represent what ratio?
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1 in every 5
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Soil that is transported by the wind
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Aeolian soil
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Appximate percentage of the world that depends on wood/charcoal for heating/cooling
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between 50% and 60%
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Of all the jobs in the US Forest Service, majority are concerned w/:
(A) Fire Management (B) Recreation (C) Administrative Functions (D) Mining management (E) Lumber management |
(B) Recreatoin
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Mechanical Energy
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There are two types of mechanical energy: potential and kinetic
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Thermal Energy
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Heat is the internal energy in substances
The vibration and mvmt of the atoms/molecules within the substance |
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Chemical Energy
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this is stored in bonds between atoms in a molecule
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Electrical Energy
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This results from the motion of electrons
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Nuclear Energy
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Stored in the nuclei of atoms.
Released by either splitting or joining of atoms |
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Electromagnetic
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Electromagnetic energy travels by waves
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Power
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the amount of work done per time
most common unit = kWh (kilwatt-hours) |
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First Law of Thermodynamics
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energy cannot be created or destroyed
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Second Law of Thermodynamics
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When energy is converted from one form to another, a less useful form results
Energy cannot be recycled to a higher quality |
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% of gasoline converted into mechanical energy
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20%; the rest is lost as heat (low-quality energy)
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Wood
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Renewable energy source
Served as the predominant form of energy up until the Industrial Revolution |
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Coal
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During the Industrial Revolution, coal surpassed wood's usage
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Petroleum
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Coal was overtaken by petroleum in the 20th century along w/ natural gas
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When did the USA cease to be self sufficient (energywise)
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in the late 1950s energy production began to outpace production which led to oil imports
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Greatest to least use of energy in the United States
|
1) Industrial
2) Transportantion 3) Residential/commercial |
|
The US accounts for ___% of the world consumption of petroleum
|
25%
Then Japan, then china, then russia |
|
In the US, most of the energy comes from __________________ energy sources
|
nonrenewable
|
|
Nonrenewable energy sources
|
The supply of these resources are limited
coal, petroleum, natural gas, propane, and uranium |
|
Renewable Energy Sources
|
Virtually unlimited, can be replinished in a relatively short amount of time
biomass, geothermal energy, hydropower, solar, wind |
|
Clean Coal
|
(one of the best resources of future energy needs)
Must under to processes to reduce negative environmental effects of burning coal |
|
Clean Coal process
|
1) washing coal to remove minerals/imporuties
2) Capture the sulfure dioxide/CO2 from the flue gases |
|
Methane Hydrates
|
(one of the best resources of future energy needs)
This could be used to form natural gas This is methane locked in ice (form at low temp and high pressure). Found in permafrost regions and at ocean floor (high press. low temp) could supply energy for hundreds of thousands of years |
|
Methane bound in hydrates is ______x the volume of methane in the air
|
3000 times greater
|
|
Natural Gas (methane hydrates) use in the future
|
Use of this is expected to grow because:
1) expanded use as a transportation fuel 2) alternative source of hydrogen for fuel cells |
|
Waste of natural gas
|
CO2!!!!! :(
|
|
Oil Shale
|
(one of the best resources of future energy needs)
Contains organic material kerogen Extracted using In situ methods/surface mining -> surface mining of this negatively impacts the environment. Insitu can affect aquifers |
|
Tar Sands
|
(one of the best resources of future energy needs)
contains bitumen (semisolid form of oil that doesn't flow) Oil in tar sands is about 2/3 of the world's total reserves Most concentrated tar sand is in Canada! |
|
Most of the world's energy supply is by _____
|
burning oil
|
|
Oil reserves will last for how much longer?
|
50 years
|
|
Coal Production
|
Produced by decomposition of ancient organic matter under high temperature and pressure
Sulfur from the decomposition of hydrogen sulfide by anaerobic bacteria became trapped in coal Coal supplies 25% of the world's energy (China and US consume the most) Primary use is to produce electricity |
|
three types of coal
|
1) lignite
2) bituminous 3) anthracite |
|
Lignite
|
(type of coal)
1) softest and has the lowest heat content |
|
Bituminous
|
(Type of coal)
High sulfur content Constitutes 50% of the US reserve |
|
Anthracite
|
(type of coal)
hard, high heat content and low sulfur content 2% of the US reserve |
|
What does the Clean Air Act require of Coal?
|
It requires a 90% reductino in the release of sulfur-containing gases achieved by cleaning coal prior to burning, redesigning boilers, and adding limestone to the effluent
|
|
Oil production
|
Fossil fuel produced by the decomposition of deeply buried organic material
|
|
Natural gas (aka methane/CH4) production
|
decomposition of ancient organic matter under high temp/pressure
|
|
Coal (Extraction-Purification method)
|
surface mining or underground mining
Must be cleaned by scrubbing, also turned to liquid by clean coal technology |
|
Oil (Extraction-Purification method)
|
Expensive/elaborate to extract
Usually trapped in a layer of porous sandstone Drill a hole, then it spurts due to pressure, then you have to pump the remaining oil out |
|
Natural Gas (Extraction-Purification method)
|
Typically flows from wells under its own pressure
|
|
Coal (world reserves/global demand)
|
expected to last 300 more years
Largest reserves in China |
|
Oil (world reserves/global demand)
|
Primarily in the middle east
|
|
Natural Gas
|
Russia/Kazakhstan = 40%
Middle East = 25% USA = 3% |
|
Synfuel
|
liquid fuel synthesized from a nonpetroleum source
Coal, natural gas, oil shale, water plastics => can be liquified to form synfuels |
|
Synfuels (Pros)
|
- Easily transported through pipelines
- Produces less air pollution - Large supply of raw materials available worldwide to create this - Can produce gas,diesel, or kersene directly without reforming/cracking |
|
Synfuels (Cons)
|
- Low net energy yield (requires energy to make SNG)
- plants to produce this are expensive to build - Would increase depletion of coal due to inherent inefficiencies - product is more expensive than petroleum |
|
Coal (Pros)
|
- abundant (will last for 300 years)
- unidentified reserves will last 1000 years - US reserves can last for 300 more years - high net energy yield - us government subsidies keep prices low - stable, nonexplosive |
|
Coal (Cons)
|
- must be mined using strip/underground methods that cause disruption, erosion, runoff, and decrease of biodiversity
- 35% of all CO2 emissions come from coal; releases sulfur into the air - underground mining is dangerous and unhealthy - expensive to process and transport - pollution causes global warming - expensive to clean coal |
|
Oil (Pros)
|
- inexpensive (but prices increasing)
- heasily transported through pipelines - High net energy yield - ample supply - Large US govt subsidies - versitile (can make many things) |
|
Oil (Cons)
|
- world oil reserves are limited/declining
- produces pollution (SO2, NOx, and CO2) - causes land disturbances in drilling process, which accelerates erosion - oil spills are horrible - disruption to wildlife habitats (Arctic Wildlife refuge) |
|
Oil (Cons)
|
- world oil reserves are limited/declining
- produces pollution (SO2, NOx, and CO2) - causes land disturbances in drilling process, which accelerates erosion - oil spills are horrible - disruption to wildlife habitats (Arctic Wildlife refuge) |
|
Natural Gas (Pros)
|
- Pipelines and distribution networks in place
- Easily produced/transported - Relatively inexpensive - High net energy yield - Produces less pollution than any other fossil fuel - extraction is not as damaging to the environment as coal/oil |
|
Natural Gas (Cons)
|
- Releases H2S and SO2
- Leakage of methane has greater impact on global warming than CO2 - Disruption to areas where it is collected - extraction releases contaminated wastewater and brine |
|
Nuclear Fission
|
During this, an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei along with by-product particles
Reaction is exothermic -> heat used to produce steam that turns generators that then produce electricity Nuclear wastes are highly radioactive and are difficult to dispose of |
|
U-235
|
differs from U-238 in its ability to produce a fission chain reaction
Very energy efficient Less than 1% of all natural uranium is U-235 |
|
Critical mass
|
the minimum amount of U-235 required for a chain reaction
|
|
U-238
|
most common isotope of uranium
This is the most depleted uranium (cuz human use it!) |
|
PU-239 (plutonium)
|
produced in breeder reactors from U-238
Plutonium fission provides about 1/3 of energy in typically commercial nuclear power plant |
|
Reasons for the decline of nuclear power
|
1) cost overruns
2) higher-than-expected operating costs 3) safety issues 4) nuclear waste disposal issues 5) "risky" |
|
Core (nuclear reactor)
|
contains 50,000 fuel rods
Each pellet has the energy equivalent to 1 ton of coal |
|
Fuel (nuclear reactor)
|
Uranium oxide
use U-238 or U235 |
|
Control Rods (nuclear reactor)
|
made of boron
move in and out of the core to absorb nuetrons and slow down the reaction |
|
Moderator (nuclear reactor)
|
A medium that reduces the velocity of fast neutrons, therby turning them into thermal neutrons capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction
|
|
Coolant (nuclear reactor)
|
Removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity
|
|
Pressurized-Water Reactors
|
1) water coolant operates at high pressure and is then pumped through the reactor core which is then heated
2) Superheated water ispumped through a steam generator 3) Through heat exchangers, a secondary loop of water is heated and converted to steam 4) steam drives one/more turbine generators -> the water is then condensed and pumped back to the steam generator Secondary loop is isolated from the water in the reactor core and is not radioactive A third stream of water from a nearby source is used to condense the steam |
|
Boiling-water reactors
|
1) water coolant is permitted to boil within the core by operating at a low pressure
2) Steam produced in the reactor pressure vessel is then piped directly to the turbing generator, is condensed and then pumped back to the reator Steam is radioactive, but there is no intermediate heat exchanger between the reactor and turbing to derease efficiency Water condensor coolant comes from an outside source |
|
Light Water Reactors
|
Both the moderator and the coolant are light water
|
|
Heavy Water Reactors
|
Both the moderator and the coolant are heavy water
|
|
Graphite-Moderated Reactors
|
This category uses:
light water = cooling graphite = moderation uranium = fuel Requires no separated isotopes (like uranium/heavy water) Stopped being producd |
|
Exotic Reactors
|
Fast-breeder reactors and other experiemental installations are in this group
These produce more fissionable material than they consume |
|
Nuclear Power (Pros)
|
- no air pollutants
- less CO2 than fossil fuels - Water pollution is low - Little impact to land |
|
Nuclear Power (Cons)
|
- Nuclear wastes take millions of years to degrade
- safety issues - nuclear plants can only be used for 15-40 years - net energy yield is low |
|
Price-Anderson Nuclear Indemnity Act
|
covers all nonmilitary nuclear facilities constructed before 2026
It indemnifies the nuclear industry against all liability claims arising from nuclear accidents while ensuring compensation coverage for the general public through no-fault insurance |
|
Comparing Health risks of Nuclear and Coal
|
Premature Death:
Nuclear = 6000 Coal = 65000 Genetic Defects/Damage: Nuclear = 4000 Coal = 200,000 |
|
Chernobyl Ukraine
|
Explosion in a nuclear power plant sent highly radioactive debris throughout norther Europe.
Many deaths, many people exposed to radiation -> cost $400 billion |
|
Nuclear Fusion
|
can occur when extremely high temps are used to force nuclei of isotops of lightweight atoms to fuse together
Causes LOTS of energy to be released |
|
Hydroelectric Power
|
Dams are built to trap water, which in turn is then released and channeled through turbines that generate electricity.
|
|
Hydroelectric Power (Pros)
|
1) Fams control flooding
2) low operating and maintenence costs 3) no polluting waste products 4) long life spans 5) high net-useful energy 6) areas of water recreation |
|
Hydroelectric Power (Cons)
|
1) damns create large flooding areas behind the dam from which people are displaced. Water is slow moving and can breed pathogens
2) damns destroy wildlife habits and keep fish from migrating 3) sedimentation requires dredging. Prevents sedimentation from reaching downstream and enriching farmland 4) expensive to build 5) Destroys wild rivers 6) large-scale projects are subject to earthquakes |
|
Channelization
|
(flood control method)
Straighten and deepen streams |
|
Channelization (Cons)
|
CONS: removes bank vegetation and increases stream velocity which causes erosion
|
|
Dams
|
(flood control method)
These store water in reservoirs During period of excessive rainfall, these can be overwhelmed and excess water needs to be released |
|
Indentify and Manage Flood-Prone Areas
|
(flood control method)
By doing this, precautionary building practices like floodways, building elevation, and pumping stations can be adopted |
|
Levees or Floodwalls
|
These are raised embankments to prevent a river from overflowing
(flood control method) Levees contain river/stream flows but increase water velocity |
|
Preserve wetlands
|
(flood control method)
this preseves natural flood plains and maintains biodiversity |
|
Salmon (in regards to dams)
|
less than 5% of the salmon's original habitat is still available
Dams change the character of rivers, creating slow-moving, warm-water pools that are ideal for predators of salmon Low water flow can slow fish down and warm water exposes them to disease save the salmon w/ fish passage failities and fish ladders; spilling water at dams can help pass juvenile fish downstream (avoids sending them through turbines), Water releases from upstream storage reservoirs help to increase water velocity/decrease water temps |
|
Impacts of Dams: Disease
|
Dams in tropical areas, due to slow water mvmt, are breeding grounds for mosquitos and disease
|
|
Dam impacts (Displacement)
|
flooded areas behind damns destroy rich croplands and displace people
|
|
Dam Impacts (Effects on watershed)
|
Downstream areas are deprived of the nutrient-rich silt that would revitalize depleted soil profiles
|
|
Dam Impacts (Impacts on wildlife)
|
Migration and spawning cycles are disrupted
|
|
Dam Impacts (Silting)
|
occurs when silt that is dissolved in river water settles out behind dams
overtime, this builds up and must be removed by DREDGING |
|
Dam Impacts (Water Loss)
|
Large losses of freshwater occur through evaporation and seepage through porous rock beds
|
|
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) Standards
|
The average fuel economies of a manufacturer's fleet off passenger cars or light trucks
Says how much gas mileage a car/truck should be able to get save emissions and gas usage |
|
Parts of a hybrid car
|
five parts:
1) engine (smaller and uses advanced technology to reduce emissions and increase efficiency) 2) fuel tank in a hybrid is the energy storage device for the gas engine 3) advanced electronics allow electric motor to act as a generator 4) generator is similar to an electric motor, but only produces electric power 5) batteries in a hybrid car are the energy storage device for the electric motor -- electric motor can put energy into the batteries and draw energy from them |
|
Parallel Hybrid
|
Has a fuel tank that supplies gasoline to the engine and a set of batteries that supplies power to the electric motor
|
|
Mass Transit
|
In most of the world other than the US - Mass transport (buses, trains, subways, airline) is the main mode of transport
|
|
Solar Energy
|
Collecting and harnessing radiant energy from the sun to provide heat/electricity
Electrical power/heat can be generated at home/industrial site through photovoltaic cells/solar collecters |
|
Active Solar Collectors
|
Use the sun's energy to heat water or air inside a home/business
Requires an electrical input (for pumps and fans) |
|
Passive Solar Collectors
|
Require no moving parts
Structure is built to maximize solar capture (large, solar facing windows) |
|
Solar Energy (Pros)
|
- limitless supply
- reduces reliance on foreign inputs - No pollution - Can store energy during the day and release it at night |
|
Solar Energy (Cons)
|
- Inefficient where sunlight is limited or seasonal
- maintenance costs are high - Systems deteriorate and must by periodically replaces - Current efficiency = 10-25% |
|
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
|
Operate similar to a battery
- two electrodes (anode/cathode) separated by a membrane Oxygen passes over one electrode and hydrogen over another -> produces electrons that flow out of the cell to be used as electrical energy These NEVER RUN OUT! |
|
Hydrogen Fuel Cells (Pros)
|
- Waste product is pure water
- Small environmental Impact - energy to produce hydrogen could come from nonpolluting source (solar) - hydrogen is easily transported through pipelines - Hydrogen can by stored in compounds that make it safe to handle |
|
Hydrogen Fuel Cells (Cons)
|
- Takes energy to produce the hydrogen from water/methane
- Hydrogen gas is explosive - gan't store it for personal cars |
|
Biomass
|
This is any carbon-based, biologically derived fuel source
Examples: charcoal, biodiesel, methanol, ethanol, corn/sugarcane Can also be used for building materials and biodegradable paper/plastics |
|
Biomass (Pros)
|
- Renewable energy source as long as used sustainable
- Less SO2 and NOx produced than by burning fossil fuels - Could supply half the world's demand for electricity - Can reduce soil erosion/land degradation if biomass plants are planted in less desirable locations |
|
Biomass (Cons)
|
- requires water/soil (sources declining)
- use of inorganic fertilizer, pesticides, herbicides would ruin the environment - inefficient (70% lost as heat) - leads to large levels of pollution |
|
Biomass in Brazil Case Study
|
90% of the cars in Brazil run on either alcohol or gasohol
Alcohol is produce from sugarcane!!!!! |
|
Wind Energy
|
Wing turns giant turbine blades that then power generators
Turbins can be grouped in clusters called windfarms |
|
Wind Energy (Pros)
|
- All of US power needs could be met
- Wind farms are quickly built - Farms can be built out on sea platforms - Maintenance is low - Farms are automated - Moderate to high net energy yield - NO POLLUTION - Land beneath them can be used for agriculture |
|
Wind Energy (Cons)
|
- Visual Pollution and Noise Pollution
- Can only be built where steady wind exists - Backup systems needed when wind doesn't blow - may interfere w/ flight patterns of birds |
|
Small Scale Hydroelectric
|
Utilize small turbines connected to generators submerged in streams to generate power
Small energy cappacity Doesn't impede steam navigation or fish movement Especially attractive where powerlines aren't available There are economic incentives for this! |
|
Ocean Waves and Tidal Energy
|
The natural movement of tides and waves spin turbines that generate electricity
Only a few worldwide |
|
Ocean Waves/Tidal Energy (Pros)
|
1) no pollution
2) minimal environmental impact 3) Moderate net energy yield |
|
Ocean Waves/Tidal Energy (Cons)
|
1) Constructure Expensive
2) Few Suitable Sites 3) Equipment can be damaged by storms and corrosion |
|
Geothermal
|
Heat contained in underground rocks and fluids from molten rock produce pockets of undergroun steam and water
This steam can be used to turn turbines and generate electricity |
|
Geothermal (pros)
|
- Moderate net energy yield
- Limitless and reliable - Little air pollution - Good cost |
|
Geothermal (Cons)
|
- Reservoir sites are scarce
- Noise, odor, land subsidence - Source can be depleted if not properly managed - can degrade ecosystem due to corrosive, thermal, or saline wastes |
|
Lowest average generating cost comes from what energy source
(A) Large hydroelectric facilities (B) Solar Photovoltaic (C) Geothermal (D) Coal (E) Nuclear |
(A) Large hydroelectric facilities
|
|
Fastest growing renewable energy resource in the world today
|
WIND!
|
|
When will US oil reserves be depleted?
|
25 years!
|
|
Low-Throughput Society
|
aka a low waste society
- focuses on matter and energy eddiciency through reusing and recycling, using renewable resources at a rate no faster than they can be replensihed - Control population growth - Avoid unncecessary consumption |
|
Primary Pollutants
|
Emitted directly into the air from natural sources such as volcanoes
(particulates, NO2, SO2, CO2, carbon monoxide) |
|
Secondary Polltants
|
Result from the reaction of primary pollitants in the atmosphere to form a new pollutant
(SO3, sulfuric acid, ozone) |
|
Nitrogen Dioxide
|
Forms when fuels are burned at high temperatures
Results from: forest fires, volcanoes, lightning, bacterial action in soil Results in lung irritation and damage, suppresses plant growth, carcinogen |
|
Ozone
|
Component of Photochemical Smog
Formed by sunlight reacting with NOx and VOCs Causes lung irritation/damage, coughing wheezing Damages plants, rubber and plastics |
|
Sulfur Dioxide
|
Produced by burning high-sulfure oil or coal
Combines w/ water in the air to produce acid precip -> reduces the Significant decreases in this = result of the Clean air act and the Acid Rain Program |
|
Suspended Particulate MAtter
|
Includde sut, diesel soot, lead and asbestos
Cause lung irritation and damage Many = mutagens, teratogens, carcinogens Reducetion of these would produce health benefits 10x greater than similar reduction in all other air pollutants combined |
|
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)
|
Include organic compounds that have a high vapor pressure
found in paints, aerosol sprays Causes respiratory irritation and damage Carcinogenic, central nervous system damage More of an affect indoors than outdoors |
|
SMOG (industrial)
|
tends to be sulfur based and is called gray-air smog
|
|
SMOG (photochemical)
|
Catalyzed by UV radiation
Tends to be nitrogen-based Brown air SMOG Production is halted at night |
|
Dry Deposition
|
Acidic gases and particles
1/2 acidity in the atmosphere falls back to Earth through dry deposition Wind blows these oto cars, homes and trees When rain comes, this acid combines w/ acid in the water and makes effects even more acidic |
|
Acid deposition due to sulfur
|
1) Sulfur dioxide is introduced into the atmosphere by burning coal and oil, smelting metals, organic decay
2) combines w/ water vapor 3) reacts w/ oxygen to form sulfuric acid |
|
Acid Desposition due to nitrogen oxides
|
1) nitrogen oxides - formed by burning oil, coal, or natural gas, lightning, forest fires
2) nitrogen monoxide reacts to w/ oxygen produce nitrogen dioxide gas 3) then it reacts w/ water to produce nitrous and nitric acids |
|
Effects of Acid Rain
|
1) causes acidification of lakes and streams
2) damage of trees 3) creates unhealthy environments for decomposers and other fungi 4) accelerates decay of building materials (including statues and structures) |
|
Acid Shock
|
caused by the rapid melting of snow pack that contains dry acidic particles
Results in 5-10x more impact than acid rain |
|
Urban Heat Islands
|
occur in metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than their surroundings
Caused by: Building made up of materials that are slower to release heat (brick,concrete), lack of water or vegetation Can cause a local greenhouse effect and can harm people from the amount of heat Can be reduced by having buildings be white or reflective - and also increasing the amount of landscaping and parks |
|
Canyon Effect
|
Results from buildings reflecting and absorbing heat and blocking winds that reduce heat through convection
|
|
Temperature Inversion
|
When air temperatures increase w/ height above the ground instead of decrease in temperature w/ height
Warm air mass traps a cooler one below and the air becomes still |
|
Indoor air pollution
|
- Circulation may be restricted
- People spend a lot of time inside - Indoor pollutants may be 25-62% greater than outside levels Some pollutants include: molds, bacteria, carbon monoxide, radon, allergens, smoke |
|
Remdiation and Reduction Strategies
|
1) Emphasizing tax incentive for pollution control rather than fines and penalties
2) Setting legislative standards for energy efficiency 3) Increasing funding for research into renewable energy sources 4) INcorporate incentives for reducing air pollution into trade policy 5) Phasing out two-cycle gas engines 6) Providing incentives to use mass transit 7) Raising CAFE standards 8) using energy star applainces |
|
EPA Acid Rain Program
|
designed to reduce Sulfur Dioxide and NOx -> the primary causes of acid rain
program includes: - Setting NOx admissions standards - Market based allowance system (to those who reduce emissions, there are rewards) |
|
Clean Air Act
|
Originally signed into law to protect public health from air pollution and to limit the effects of air pollution on the environment
|
|
Kyoto Protocol
|
Required US to reduce greenhouse emissions 7% within 5 years or it would be punished
But this was seen as unattainable US felt that all of the burden was falling on developed countries rather than developing countries |
|
Kyoto Protocol (General Definition)
|
An agreement among 150 nations requiring greenhouse gas reductions
|
|
Noise Pollution
|
Unwanted human-created sound that disrupts the environment, causes hearing loss.
Also, immediate effects may be temporary or may become permanent. May include cardio problems w/ an accelerated heatbeat, high bloodpressure, pupil dilation, nervousness, anxiety, isomnia... (motor vehicles, aircraft noise, rail transport noise) |
|
Federal Noise Control Act
|
Noise regulation by governmental agencies effectively began in the US with this
promotes an environment for all American free from noise that jeopardizes their health |
|
Controlling Noise Pollution
|
- Noise barriers
- limits on vehicle speeds - quiter jet engines - local law enforcement |
|
Water Pollution
|
Can originate from either a point or nonpoint source
|
|
Point Source (Water Pollution)
|
occurs when harmful substances are emitted directly into a body of water
Example: pipe discharges effluent directly into a body of water this is usually monitered and regulated in developing countries |
|
Nonpoint source
|
Deliver pollutants idirectly through transport or environmental change
Example: when fertilizer from a farm field is carried into a stream by rain (runoff). Much more difficult to moniter/control and count for the majority of contaminants in streams and lakes |
|
Sources of water pollution: LIST THEM BITCH!
|
air pollution, chemicals, microbiological sources, mining, noise, nutrients, oxygen depleting substances, suspended matter, thermal sources
|
|
Air pollution (in terms of water pollution)
|
Pollutants fall out of the air into the water
Cause: - mercury contamination in fish - acidification - eutrophication Carbonate structures of corals, algae, and plankton to dissolve -> they are the base of the food pyramid so this ruins everything |
|
Chemicals (in terms of water pollution)
|
Can bioaccumulate -> then biomagnify poisoning people who eat them
Raod runoff and other nonspill sources heavily contaminate waters Discharge of oily wastes and oil-contaminated ballast water and wash water These stay in water for a long time and affect the reproduction of these organisms and increase their susceptibility to disease Medicines that have passed through our body, animal farming anitbiotics/growth hormones send lots of chemicals to water |
|
Microbiological Sources (in terms of water pollution)
|
Pathogenic microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, and protozoa can reult in swimmers getting sick and fish/shellfish becoming contaminated
Comes from wastewater being passed into water without prior treatment Leaking septic tanks and other sources of sewage |
|
Mining (in terms of water pollution)
|
Mining exposes heavy metals and sulfur compounds that were previously locked away in earth
Rainwater leeches these compounds -> results in acid mine drainage and heavy-metal pollution that can continue long after mining operations have ceased - Leech travels to freshwater supplies (in gold mining, cyanide poured to extract gold may get to local water) Mining countries in developing countries dump their mine products directly into water as a method of disposal Makes water devoid of life |
|
Noise Pollution (in terms of water pollution)
|
Marine organisms use sound to communicate, navigate, and hunt
Oceanic water noise pollution may make it harder for them to hunt and detect predators -> they may not be able to navigate or communicate properly |
|
Nutrients (in terms of water pollution)
|
Phosphorus/Nitrogen are necessary for plant growth and are plentiful in untreated wastewater
When added to lakes and streams, they can cause the growth of aquatic weeds that block waterways as well as algal blooms Human caused = cultural eutrophication |
|
Oxygen Depleting Substances (in terms of water pollution)
|
Biodegradable wastes are used as nutrients by bacteria
Excessive biodegradable waste can cause oxygen depletion Results in increases in anaerobic bacteria - and decreases aerobic organisms such as fish |
|
Suspended Matter (in terms of water pollution)
|
Eventually settle out of water and form silt/mud at the bottom (toxic materials can accumulate in this sediment)
when local forests are cut, this sediment runs back into water Plastics can entangle fish - plastic broken down into microparticles can be ingested by small marine organisms and move up the food chain |
|
Thermal Sources (in terms of water pollution)
|
Produced by industry and power plants
Heat reduces the ability of water to hold oxygen and causes death to organisms that cannot tolerate heat/ low oxygen levels |
|
Minimata Disease
|
27 tons of mercury dumped into Bay
It collected in fish/shellfish Resulted in blurred vision, hearing loss, loss of muscular coordianation, reproductive disorders |
|
Cultural Eutrophication
|
- process whereby human activity increases the amount of nutrients entering surface water
- Most important nutrients = nitrates and phosphates! (come from animal wastes) |
|
Cultural Eutrophication (NITRATES)
|
- nitrates water soluble
- found in fertilizers, remain on fields, accumulate, leach into grounwater -> endup in surface funoff or they can accumulate in air and cause acid rain Cause nitrate poisoning -> reduces the effectiveness of hemoglobin - more damaging in wetland systems where nitrogen is the limiting factor |
|
Cultural Eutrophication (PHOSPHATES)
|
- Not water soluble
- Soil erosion contributes to the buildup of phosphates in water supplies - Phosphate buildup is more damaging in freshwater systems where phosphorus is the limiting factor |
|
Algal nutrients
|
(nitrates and phosphates)
- increased concentrations of these increases carrying capacity of lakes and streams |
|
Algal bloom
|
Explosions in the amount of algae as a result of cultural eutrophication are called algal blooms
|
|
Algal bloom steps
|
1) increased algae due to increased nitrate/phosphate concentrations result in less light penetration, killing off deeper plants and their supply of oxygen to water
2) oxygen concentration dereases in the water due to increased materials for decomposers 3) lower oxygen causes fish to die 4) decaying fish produces toxins in water |
|
Control Methods: Cultural Eutrophication
|
1) Planting vegetation along streambeds slows erosion and absorbs nutrients
2) controlling application of fertilizers 3) controlling runoff 4) using denitrifying bacteria that convert nitrates into tmospheric nitrogen |
|
% of people in the US that depend on grounwater for water supplies
|
50%
in some countries it can reach 95% |
|
Where does half of the water used for agriculture in the US come from?
|
Groundwater
|
|
Groundwater Pollution
|
In the US, 34 billion litres of the most hazardous liquid waste solvents, heavy metals, and radioactive materials are injected directly into deep grounwater via thousands of injection wells
Water entering an aquifer remains for 1400 years so once it is contaminated, it is virtually impossible to remove the pollutants |
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Adsorption
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(drinking water treatment method)
Contaminants stick to the surface of granular or powdered activated charcoal |
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Disinfection
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(drinking water treatment method)
Chlorine, chloramines, chlorine dioxide, ozone, and UV Radiation |
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Filtration
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(drinking water treatment method)
Removes clays silts, natural organic matter, and precipitants from the treatment process Clarifies water and enhances the effectiveness of disinfection |
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Flocculation-Sedimentation
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(drinking water treatment method)
Process that combines small particles into larger particles that then settle out of the water as sediment Synthetic organic polymers, alum, and iron salts = usually used to promote coagulation |
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Ion Exchange
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(drinking water treatment method)
Removes inorganic consituents |
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Absorption
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(water remediation technique)
solutes concentrate at the surface of a sorbent, thereby reducing their concentration |
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Aeration
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Bubbling air through water increases rates of oxidation
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Air Stripping
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VOCs are separated from grounwater by exposing water to air
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Bioreactors
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Grounwater is acted upon by microorganisms
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Constructed wetlands
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Uses natural geochemical and biological processes that parallel natural wetlands
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Deep-well injection
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Uses injection wells to place treated or untreated liquid waste into geologic formations that do not pose a potential risk to groundwater
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Phytoremediation
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Uses plants to remove contamination
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UV oxidation
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uses ultraviolet light, ozone, or hydrogen peroxide to destroy contaminants
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Sewage Treatment
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Incorporates physical, chemical, and biological processes to remove contaminants from wastewater
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Septic System
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Consits of a tank and drain field
1) wastewater enters tank where solids settle 2) anaerobic digestion using bacteria treates the settled soils - reducing their volume 3) Excess liquid leaves the tank and moves through a pipe w/ holes in it to a leach field where water percolates into soil nitrogen may not decompose in system 25% of americans use these!!!!!!!! |
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Primary Treatment
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PHYSICAL!
Reduce oils, grease, fats, sand, grit, and coarse soilds Specific steps include sand catches, screens, and sedimentation |
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Secondary Treatment
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Designed to degrade the biological content of the sewage derived from waste
filters, activated sludge, trickling filter eds using plastic media, secondary sedimentation |
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Tertiary Treatment
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Raises the effluent quality to required standard before it is discharges
Sand filtration, lagooning, contructing wetlands, nutrient removal, denitrification, disinfection using UC light |
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Water Quality Act
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Established water purity standards with states retaining initial responsibility for water purify
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Clean water act
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Regulates pollutants going into water
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Organic Waste
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Kitchen waste, flowers, vegetables
usually decomposes within 2 weeks Wook takes 10-15 years |
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Radioactive Waste
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Spent fuel rods and fire alarms
Radioactive wastes can take hundreds of thousands of years to decompose |
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Recyclable
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Paper, glass, metals, plastics
Plastics can take up to 1 million years to decompose Glass doesn't decompose |
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Soiled Wastes
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Cotton and cloth can take 2-5 months to decompose
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Toxic Wastes
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Chemicals, pesticides -> take hundreds of years to decompose
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Amounts and types of municipal solid wastes
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Paper= 38%
Yard Waste = 18% Misc = 14% Plastic= 8% Metal= 8% Glass= 7% Food= 7% |
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US has ___% of world's population and produces ___% of the world's total waste
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5% of the worlds population
33% of the world's total waste |
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Burning/Incineration/Energy Recovery (Pros)
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- heat can be used to supplement energy requirements
- reduces impact on landfills - mass burning inexpensive - leaves only 10-20% of original volume - US incinerates 15% of waste - France, Japan, Sweden incerate >40% of waste and use heat to generate electricity |
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Burning/Incineration/Energy Recovery (Cons)
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- air pollution
- sorting out stuff that cannot be burned = expensive - no way of knowing toxic consequences - ash is more concentrated w/ toxic material |
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Composting (Pros)
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- creates nutrient-rich soil additive
- aids in water retention - slows down erosion - no major toxic inssues |
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Composting (cons)
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- NIMBY
- Public reaction to odor, vermin, insects |
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Remanufacturing
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- Recovers materials that would have been discarded
- beneficial to inner cities as an industry because material is available and jobs are needed |
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Detoxifying
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Reduces impact on the environment
Expensive |
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Exporting
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(PROS) Gets rid of problems immediately; source of income for some countries
(CONS) garbage imperialism/envrinomental racism; expensive; long-term effects unknown |
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Sanitary Landfills (Pros)
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- Waste is covered each day w/ dirt to prevent insects/rodents
- plastic liners, drainage systems help comtrol |
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Sanitary Landfills (Cons)
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- NIMBY
- Rising land prices - Transportation costs to the landfill - Legal liability - suitable areas limited |
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Recycling (pros)
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- reduces impact on landfills
- turns waste into an inexpensive resource - reduces dependence on foreign oil - reduces air/water pollution - reduces energy requirements to produce product - reduces need for raw materials |
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Recycling (cons)
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- poor regulation
- Fluctuations in the market price - Throwaway packaging is more popular - Current govt policies favor extraction of raw materials (energy, water, raw materials sold below real costs to stimulate new jobs and the economy) |
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Normal Rainfall has a pH of about ___
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5.6
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According to EPA, about ______ of all commercial buildings in the US are classified as sick
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15%
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IN developing countries the most likely cause of respiratory disease would be
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particulates PM10
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ACid precipitation, leaching out the metal ))))), causes fish and other aquatic organisms to die from acid shock
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Aluminum (Al)
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The pollutant that best illustrates the effectiveness of legislation
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Pb
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Major source of solid waste in the USA comes from.....
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mining wastes
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Largest type of domestic solid waste in the US
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PAPER!
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Environmental Risk Analysis
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The comparing of the risk of a situation to its related benefits
Allows one to evaluate and deal w/ the consequences of events based on their probability |
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Revealed Preferences
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Observed observations on the risks people actually take
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Expressed Preferences
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Often measured through public opinion polls
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Natural Standards
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Levels of risk humans have lived with in the past
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Extenernal Influences (in terms of risk analysis)
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factored into decisions regarding risk
include public concern, economic interest, and legislative actions that affect the possible choices available |
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Risk assessment
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objective estimation of risk
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Risk management
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Determining what to do about the risk
includes risk identification and use of mitigating measures to reduce risk can be used to prevent or mitigate the risk should take into account soietal, economic, and political factors when weighing strategies for risk managemetn |
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Risk Mgmt Strategy:
Market Based Method |
RElies on market forces to provide indirect controls
Usually the response from industry |
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Risk Mgmt Strategy:
Hierarchical Method |
Relies on explicit controls and top-down mgmt styles
Usually the response from lawmakrs |
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Risk Mgmt Strategy:
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Relies on emotions
Usually the response from the citizens |
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Rational method
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RElies on logic and facts in decision making
Usually response from researchers |
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Acute Health Effects
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Single LArge exposure is involved
Acute health effects are often reversible |
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Chronic Health Effects
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Prolonged or repeated exposures over a long period of time
Syntoms may not be readily apparent Effects = irreversible |
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Dose-Response Relationships
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describe change in effect on an organism or a population caused by differing levels of exposures to a substance
Used to determine whether various environmental risks are safe or hazardous |
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Dose-Response Curve
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Graph that relates the amount of drug/toxin given compared w/ response
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Threshold Dose
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The point on the Dose-response curve where the response is first observed
For most drugs, desired effect is found slightly above the threshold dose -> when past this point, negative side effects appear |
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LD50 (lethal dose, 50%)
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median lethal dose of a pollutant or drug that kills half the members of a tested population within 14 days
- most common indicator of toxicity |
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EC50
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concentration of a compound where 50% of its effect is observed
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IC50
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concentration os a pollutant/drug that is required for obtaining inhibition
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Air Toxics
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Group of air pollutatns that are known/suspected to cause serious health problems
People exposed have more chance of cancer/immune/neurological/reproductive damage |
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Abestos
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Lead to lung cancer
The greater/longer the exposure, the greater the risk of contracting disease symptoms of these diseases don't usually appear until about 20-30 years after exposure |
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Carbon Monoxide (health)
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Enters the bloodstream through the lungs and binds chemically to hemoglobin
Interferes w/ the ability of the blood to transport oxygen to organs and tissues throughout the body |
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Indoor Air Pollutants (health)
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may be acute or chronic
headaches, dizziness, usually short term and treatable |
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Lead (Pb)
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exposure is through inhalation and ingestion of lead in food, water, soil, dust
Can cause seizures, brain, and kidney damage CHILDREN ARE AT MOST RISK because their bodies grow quickly |
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Nitrogen Dioxide
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- coughing, wheezing
- lung functions affected - may cause permanent structural changes in the lungs |
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Ozone
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Reactivity of this causes health problems:
- reduction in lung capacity - reduces lung function - pulmonary congestion |
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PM10
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Coarse particulates cause asthma and premature death (due to heat disease/lung disease)
Can increase susceptibility to respiratory infection and can aggravate existing resp. diseases like asthma and chronic bronchitis |
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Sulfur Dioxide
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High concentrations of sulfur dioxide affect breathing and may aggravate existing resp./cardio disease
children and elderly most affected |
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Smoking
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Cigarettes contain over 4700 chem. compounds
Long-term smoking greatly increases likelihood of develping many fatal conditions Responsible for 85% of lung cancers |
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Hazardous Waste
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waste with properties that make it dangerous/harmful to human health or the environment
Corrosives, ignitables, reactive |
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Corrosive
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(HAZARDOUS)
Strong acids/bases that can corrode metal containers: battery acid |
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discarded commercial produces
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(HAZARDOUS)
specific commercial chemical products in an unused for Some pesticides and some pharmaceutical products become this when discarded |
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Ignitable
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(HAZARDOUS)
create fires under certain conditions Spontaneously combustible -> waste oils and used solvents |
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Reactive
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(HAZARDOUS)
Unstable under normal conditions Cause explosions, toxic fumes, gases, vapors |
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Toxic
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Wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed
When these are land disposed, contaminated liquid may leach from the wate and pollute groundwater |
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Bioremediation
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the use of bacteria and enzymes to break down hazardous materials
PROS: inexpensive, low energy use, no pollution, easy to build CONS: slow, effective only as far down as roots will reach, some toxic materials can evaporate through plants |
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Inceneration
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Can release air pollutants and toxic ASh
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Arid Region Unsaturated Zone
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The unsaturated zone is the subsurface between the land surface and underlying aquifers
Includes sites in the arid western US that are being relied upon to isolate lots of hazardous waste |
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Landfill
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PRO: inexpensive
CON: groundwater seepage and contamination |
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Salt Formations
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Toxic wastes are deposited in deep salt formations
The absense of flowing water within natural salt formations prevents dissolution and subsequent spreading of waste products |
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Surface Impoundments
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Excavated ponds pits or lagoons
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Underground injection
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low cost, wastes can be retrieves
leaks, earthquake issues, grounwater contamination |
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Cost-benefit analysis
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technique for deciding whether to make a change
determine an action and levels of action that achieve the greatest net economic benefit |
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Cost-effectiveness
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Implementing a specific environmental health or safety objective at the least cost
Emphasis on achieving the objective |
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Cost-benefit analysis applies to three different economic situations
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1) help judge whether public services provided by the private sector are adequate
2) can be used when judging and sessing inefficiencies 3) helps determine how to meet societal needs in a cost-effective manner in areas that only govt can address |
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Corrosive
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(HAZARDOUS)
Strong acids/bases that can corrode metal containers: battery acid |
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discarded commercial produces
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(HAZARDOUS)
specific commercial chemical products in an unused for Some pesticides and some pharmaceutical products become this when discarded |
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Ignitable
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(HAZARDOUS)
create fires under certain conditions Spontaneously combustible -> waste oils and used solvents |
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Reactive
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(HAZARDOUS)
Unstable under normal conditions Cause explosions, toxic fumes, gases, vapors |
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Toxic
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Wastes are harmful or fatal when ingested or absorbed
When these are land disposed, contaminated liquid may leach from the wate and pollute groundwater |
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Bioremediation
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the use of bacteria and enzymes to break down hazardous materials
PROS: inexpensive, low energy use, no pollution, easy to build CONS: slow, effective only as far down as roots will reach, some toxic materials can evaporate through plants |
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Inceneration
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Can release air pollutants and toxic ASh
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Arid Region Unsaturated Zone
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The unsaturated zone is the subsurface between the land surface and underlying aquifers
Includes sites in the arid western US that are being relied upon to isolate lots of hazardous waste |
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Landfill
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PRO: inexpensive
CON: groundwater seepage and contamination |
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Salt Formations
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Toxic wastes are deposited in deep salt formations
The absense of flowing water within natural salt formations prevents dissolution and subsequent spreading of waste products |
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Surface Impoundments
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Excavated ponds pits or lagoons
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Underground injection
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low cost, wastes can be retrieves
leaks, earthquake issues, grounwater contamination |
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Cost-benefit analysis
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technique for deciding whether to make a change
determine an action and levels of action that achieve the greatest net economic benefit |
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Cost-effectiveness
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Implementing a specific environmental health or safety objective at the least cost
Emphasis on achieving the objective |
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Cost-benefit analysis applies to three different economic situations
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1) help judge whether public services provided by the private sector are adequate
2) can be used when judging and sessing inefficiencies 3) helps determine how to meet societal needs in a cost-effective manner in areas that only govt can address |
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Externality
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wide variety of costs and benefits that are not included in prices or the effects of an action on people who were not a part of the process
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biogeochemical cycles
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how carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur move through the environment
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Reservoir
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a place where a large quantity of a nutrient sits for for a long period of time
(in water cycle, ocean = reservoir) |
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Exchange Pool
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A site where nutrients sit for only a short period of time
example = cloud |
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Residency Time
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the amount of time a nutrient spends in a reservoir or exchange pool
cloud = a few days; ocean = a few years |
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Energy sources for biogeochemical cycles
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the sun
heat energy from mantle/core of the earth |
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Law of conservation of matter
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nothing can be created nor destroyed
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Trace elements
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necessary in small amounts for living organisms
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Precipitation
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the water condenses in its gaseous state and falls due to the pull of gravity
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Evaporation
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water is returned to the atmosphere from earth's surface and living organisms
people = respire plants = transpire oceans/lakes= large amounts of water evap here |
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Infiltration
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The water sinks below the surface of the land and becomes grounwater
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Respiration
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animals and plants breathe and give off carbon dioxide
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Photosynthesis
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plants take in carbon dioxide, water, and energy from the sun to create carbohydrates
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Carbon released into atmosphere
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1) respiration (plants and animals)
2) burning of fossil fuels (organic matter subjected to heat/pressure) 3) decaying organic matter (by bacteria/fungi) 4) volcanoes |
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Carbon reservoirs
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1st largest = ocean
2nd largest = earth's rocks |
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lightning storms
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can change atmospheric nitrogen into usable form
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ammonia/nitrates
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usable forms of nitrogen
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Nitrogen Fixation (1)
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- most of this occurs with the help of bacteria in the soil (like Rhizobium)
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Nitrogen fixing bacteria
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associated with roots of legumes
if the genes of these bacteria were incorporated into plants, it would reduce the amount of fertilizer used |
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Nitrification
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Soil converts ammonium into nitrate
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Assimilation
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plants absorbs ammonia ions, and nitrate ions through their roots.
Heterotrophs receive this back when they consume plan'ts proteins and nucleic acids |
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Ammonification
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Decomposing bacteria convert dead organisms and other waste to ammonia or ammonium ions which can be reused by plants
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Denitrification
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ammonia and nitrates are converted back into nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide gas
these rise into the atmosphere |
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Phosphorus
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Major component of nucleic acids (DNA = phosphate, sugar, nitrogenic base)
Phospho-lipid bilayer <3 This is a limiting factor for plant growth. Plants that lack a lot of phosphorus are stunted |
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Phosphorus cycles definition
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more local than either of the other cycles
phosphorus does not go into the air |
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The phosphorus cycle
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1) phosphorus is mainly in rocks, soil, sediments
2) released from rocks during weathering in the form of phosphate (soluble, easily absorbed by plants) 3) phosphates that go into water can be incorporated into rocks on the ocean floor. 4) through ocean mixing or upwelling, these rocks can rise to the surface waters and be subjected again to the processes of the terrestrial cycle |
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Human effect on the phosphorus cycle
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mining phosphorus rich rocks for fertilizers
this returns to water in runoff and affects aquasystems through eutrophication and the overgrowth of algae |
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sulfur
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a component that makes up proteins and vitamins
plants get it by absorbing it through roots from soil Animals obtain sulfur by consuming plants |
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Where is sulfur (SARO... mary?)
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1) rocks
2) salts 3) deep in the ocean 4) atmosphere |
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How sulfur enters atmosphere
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1) volcanoes
2) bacteria 3) decay of organisms 4) mainly released through industrial processes (produce sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide) |
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Autotrophs
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Can produce their own organic compounds from inorganic chemicals
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Heterotrophs
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obtain energy by consuming other organisms or products created by other organisms
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Anaerobic Autotrophs
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Can produce food from inorganic molecules through the process of chemosynthesis
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Chemosynthesis
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carried out by specialized bacteria (chemiotrophs)
These are found in the hydrothemal vents deep in the ocean |
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Primary consumer
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includes herbivores
these only consume producers (plant/algae) |
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Detritivores
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NOT BACTERIA OR FUNGI
these get energy from nonliving organic matter (dead animals or fallen leaves) |
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Decomposers
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Bacteria/fungi that absorb nutrients from nonliving organic plant matter:
waste, corpses, plant material They convert organic material to inorganic forms |
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how many levels of the food chain can organisms occupy?
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more than one. When humans eat a chicken salad, they are primary consumers and secondary consumers
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Trophic level
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each of the feeding levels in a food chain is a trophic level
the amount of energy available to each one decreases as the levels get higher (only 10% of energy is passed onto the next level - most is lost as heat along the way) |
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Primary energy source
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Sun, inorganic chemicals =)
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Energy pyramid
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organisms at the base have the most energy available to them
organisms at the top have the least This CANNOT be inverted |
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Bioaccumulation
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the accumulation of a substance (like a toxic chemical) in the tissues of a living organism
(usually toxins and heavy metals) |
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Biomagnification
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increasing concentration of toxin molecules at successively higher trophic levels in the food chain
(usually toxins and heavy metals) |
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Food chains
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demonstrate the myriad of feeding relationships that are in an ecosystem
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biomes
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ecosystems based on land
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aquatic life zones
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ecosystems based in aqueous environments
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ecotones
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the transitional area where two ecosystems meet
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ecozones/ecoregions
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smaller regions within ecosystems that share similar physical features
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Deciduous Forest (rainfall/soil type)
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25-250 cm
rich soil w/ high organic content |
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Deciduous Forest (major vegetation)
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hardwood trees
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Deciduous Forest (location)
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North America, Europe, Eastern Asia, Australia
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Tropical Rainforest (rainfall/soil type)
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200-400 cm
Poor soil quality |
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Tropical Rainforest (major vegetation)
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Tall trees w/ few lower limbs
Vines; epiphytes plants are adapted to low light intensity |
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Tropical Rainforest (world location)
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South America, West Africa, Southeast Asia
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Grasslands (rainfall/soil type)
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10-60 cm
nutrient rich soil |
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Grasslands (major vegetation)
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sod forming grass
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Grasslands (location)
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North American plains and praries
russian steppes Argentinian pampas; south african velds |
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Taiga/Coniferous Forest (rainfall/soil type)
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20-60 cm mostly in the summer
soil is acidic due to vegetation |
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Taiga/Coniferous Forest (major vegetation)
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Coniferous trees
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Taiga/Coniferous Forest (world location)
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Northern North America
Northern Eurasia (russia) |
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Chaparral/Scrub Forest (annual rainfall/soil type)
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50-75 cm mostly in the winter
soil is shallow and infertile |
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Chapparal/Scrub Forest (major vegetation)
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Small trees w/ large hard leaves
Spiny Shrubs |
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Chapparal/Scrub Forest (world location)
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western North America/the mediterranean region
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Deserts (cold and hot)
(annual rainfall) |
less than 25 cm
Soil has a course texture (sandy) |
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Deserts (major vegetation)
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Cactus
Other low water adapted plants |
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Deserts (world location)
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30 degrees north and south of the equator
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Law of Tolerance
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describes the degree to which living organisms are capable of tolerating changes in their environment
basis for natural selection -> drives evolution |
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Law of the Minimum
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Living organisms will continue to live, consuming available materials until the supply of these materials is exhausted
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Evolution
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results in biodiversity
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Phylogenic tree
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describes the evolutionary relationships between species
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Species
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the process of how new species are formed
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Species
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Group of organisms that are capable of breeding with one another
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Evolutionary Fitness
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these organisms survive and their genes are part of the population's subsequent generation
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Hardy-Weingberg principle
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an idealized large population that is not evolving
No natural populations meet the criteria for this model |
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Microevolution
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small changes in a populations gene pool
these mutations get passed from generation to generation |
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Genetic Drift
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event drastically reduces the size of a particular population
the number of alleles is significantly reduced |
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Bottleneck effect (a type of genetic drift)
|
reduction in genetic diversity due to genetic drift (when there is a large catastrophe that kills off many members of a population - thereby reducing the number of alleles in the gene pool)
Gene pool large (bottom of bottle) -> then it gets smaller (bottleneck) |
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Founder affect (a type of genetic drift)
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a few individuals migrate away from the main population to form a new population
similar to the bottleneck effect in that it decreases biodiversity substantially |
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Nonrandom mating (a type of genetic drift)
|
in many populations, mating is random
coloring preferences, limited mobility, and other restrictions on physical access are just a few of the factors that influence which members of a population will mate |
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Nonrandom mating (larger populations)
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the effects of nonrandom mating are minor
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Nonrandom mating (smaller populations)
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the effects of nonrandom mating are greater and the results in the predominance of a few preferred alleles
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Macroevoltuion
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new species are created or die out
operates on a species level rather than a population level |
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Allopatric speciation
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when two groups of the same species are separated by distance
Each species undergoes evolutions -> eventually two population = so different that they cannot reproduce |
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Reproductive Isolation
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Two populations evolve such that they are incapable of reproducing
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Sympatric Speciation
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When different species arise from a single species
Occurs because of chromosomal changes in the population or when nonrandom mating occurs |
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Extinction
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species cannot adapt quickly enough to environmental change and all members of the species die
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Community
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Populations of different species interacting with one another
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Niche
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Species habitat
Their use of resources within the environment (abiotic/biotic) Their role in the system |
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Competition
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individuals compete for resources in the environment
|
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Intraspecific Competition
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Two individuals in the same species compete
|
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Interspecific Competition
|
Two individuals in different species compete
|
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Competitve Exclusion
|
No two species can occupy the same niche at the same time (gause's principle)
The two species compete and the one that is more fit wins while the other must relocate or die out |
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Realized Niche
|
the species that loses in competition has to find a new niche
this is what it's called! |
|
Gause's Principle
|
no two species can occupy the same niche at the same time
|
|
fundamental niche
|
the niche that the winning species in competitive exclusion has
this is the opposite of the realized niche |
|
Plant competition
|
They compete for sunlight and space
- spread their offspring far away so they don't have to compete with them - secrete chemicals that inhibit other plant's growth |
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Predation
|
one species feeds on another -> this is the driving force for changes in population size
this is another type of interspecies interaction |
|
Predation w/ plants
|
predation can occur when a primary consumer feeds on plants
|
|
Symbiotic relationships
|
close, prolonged associations between two or more different organisms of different species that may, but don't always, benefit each member
|
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Mutualism (symbiotic)
|
both species benefit
Ex. Sea anenome and clow fish Sea anenome's stinging cells protect the clownfish Clownfish wards off some of the anenome's predators |
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Commensalism (symbiotic)
|
one organism benfits; the other is not affected
ex: barnacles on a whale barnacles find an environment where they can recieve lots of nutrients and protection whales are not affected |
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Parasitism (symbiotic)
|
One benefits, one's harmed
fleas on a dog; tick in humans |
|
keystone species
|
maintains the balance of in a community
may not always be the most obvious species, species whose very presence contributes to an ecosystem's diversity and whose extinction would consequently lead to the extinction of other forms of life |
|
Indigenous species
|
live and occur naturally in an environment
|
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Introduced species
|
interferes w/ organisms
red ants in the southern America; grey squirrels in england |
|
Invasive species
|
Zebra mussels (introduced to the great lakes by ships)
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Primary Succession
|
If ecological succession begins in a virtually lifeless area it is called this
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Secondary Succession
|
ecological succession that takes place where an existing community has been cleared but the soil has been left intact
may have been cleared by fire, human impact, or tornado |
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Ecological Succession
|
some of the changes that take place in a geographic area over time
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Pioneer species
|
The first species that colonize during succession
pioneer species typically have a wider range of tolerance (insects) |
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Climax Community
|
the final stage of succession in which there is a dynamic balance between abiotic and biotic components of the community
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Succession (in steps)
|
1) lichens (pioneer species) -> erode rock surfaces into soil -> make the land more habitable
2) organisms settle in. Lichens outcompeted by mosses, ferns, (annual plants) 3) low shrubs 4) conifers (perrenials) 5) short-lived hardwood trees (dogwood and red maples) 6) long-life hardwood trees (oak) |
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Habitat Fragmentation
|
When the size of an organism's natural habitat is reduced or when the habitat is isolated due to development
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Ecotones
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Wide Overlapping boundaries between ecosystems
There is larger diversity/density at the boundaries than there is within the heart of the ecosystem |
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Edge Effect
|
At the ecotones, there is larger species diversity and larger abundance than at the heart of the exosystem
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Resource Partitioning
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Organisms use different resources in the same habitat as a way to avoid competition
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Indicator Species
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Species whose decline indicates damage to the habitat
Ex. Gray Jay that lives in the American south. The Gray Jay's food supply has been lowered due to global warming -> Gray Jay is indicating a problem |
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Specialist Species
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Narrow and specific niche; can only live in a certain habitat
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Inertia
|
The tendency of an ecosystem to maintain its overall structure
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Disturbance
|
Something that will instigate the process of succession
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Population density
|
The number of living organisms per unit area
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Population dispersion
|
How individuals are spaced within a region
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Random Dispersion
|
relativly uncommon
position of each individual is not determined or influenced by the other members of the population |
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Clumping dispersion
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Most common
Individuals flock together for protection One particular region may be rich in all the things an organism needs for life |
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Uniform dispersion
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Members of a population are uniformly spaced thorughout the geographic region
Trees are spaced evenly in a forest so that each receives adequate light and water Result of competition!!! |
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biotic potential
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the amount a population would grow if there were unlimited resources in an environment
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Carrying Capacity
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The (K) of a specific region is definied as the maximum population size that can be supported by the available resources in the region
bacteria require fewer resources to live than zebra. Thus the K is higher for bacteria than zebra |
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J-curve (exponential)
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the shape of the growth of a population if there was unlimited food and no limiting factors
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S-curve (K included)
This is LOGISTIC population growth (think of a ln graph) |
much more realistic
carrying capacity is in there. Shows an initial burst in population and the subsequent flattening of it as the growth rate drops and the curve ultimately resembles a flattened S |
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r-selected organims
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reproduce early in life and often
they have a high capacity for reproductive growth little/no care is given to the offspring examples= bacteria, algae, insects |
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K-selected organisms
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reproduce later in life; produce fewer offspring; devote time/energy to caring for offspring
they need to preserve as many as possible because they only have a few babies. ex. humans, lions, cows |
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Boom-and-Bust Cycle
|
common among r-strategists
rapid increase in population and then an equally rapid drop off. When conditions are good for growth (good temp/good nutrient availability) the population soars When conditions worsen, the population fails indefinitely |
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Predator-Prey Cycle
|
(rabbit/cayote example: year of rainfall means lots of rabbitts, and lots of food for cayotes -> more cayotes.... less rainfall = less rabbits= less cayote food = less cayotes)
The population cycle of the predator does not cahnge at exactly the same time as the rabbit pop. Cayote rises after the rabbit's population does. (rabbits have to build to high levels before cayotes have enough to eat) |
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Predator-Prey Cycle (in regards to Endagered Species)
|
If humans destroy environment, this means the environment for small organisms are destroyed -> means they reproduce less -> means less food for upper trophic levels -> means the cayotes die :(
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Density-dependent factors
(depend on the size of the population) |
- increased predation (more predators are attracted to the increased food source)
- competition for food or living space - disease (spreads more rapidly in populations that are overcrowded) - buildup of toxic materials |
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Density-Independent factors
|
will change the population's size regardless of how many individuals
- fires, earthquakes, hurricanes, catastrophic events |
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Number of people in the world
|
6.5 billion
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Is the rate of population still increasing in the US? In other countries?
|
No, it is actually decreasing in many places, but the population is still rising
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Which country(ies) have the most people
|
#1 China
#2 India India will soon surpass China though |
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Actual Growth Rate
(formula calculation!!!) |
(birth rate - death rate)/10
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Crude Birth Rate
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number of live births per 1000 members of the population
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Crude Death Rate
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number of death per 1000 members of a population per year
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emigration
|
movement of people out of a population
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immigration
|
movement of people into a population
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Total Fertility Rate
|
used to describe the number of children a woman will bear during her lifetime
|
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replacement birthrate
|
number of children a couple must have in order to replace themselves in a population
(in some developing countries this can be 2.5!!) |
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How long have human populations been growing exponentially?
|
more than 3 centuries
|
|
Factors that affect birthrates
|
1) availability of birth control
2) demand for children in the workforce 3) base level education for women 4) existence of public/private retirement systems 5) population's religion/culture |
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Why are human populations growing?
|
From decreased death rates!!! (not increased birthrates)
- industrial revolution improved quality of life - medicine makes people live longer - fimprovements in sanitation - better healthcare - dependable food supplies |
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Demographic transition model
|
used to predict population trends based on birth and death rates of a population.
In this model, a population can experience zero population growth in two ways: high birthrates, high death rates or low birthrates, low deathrates |
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First State Demographic transition
|
when birthrates and deathrates are high
(still makes zero population growth) |
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Second State Demographic
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Low birthrates, low deathrates
(still makes zero population growth |
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Demographic transition
|
population shift from HIGH birth/death rates to LOW birthrates/deathrates
4 states exist in this model: 1) pre-industrial state 2) transitional state 3) industrial state 4) postindustrial state |
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Pre-industrial State
|
the population exhibits a slow rate of growth and has a high birth rate and a high death rate...
all due to harsh living conditions |
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Transitional State
|
Birthrates are HIGH
Deathrates are LOW (due to better food, water and healthcare) This allows for rapid population growth |
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Industrial State
|
Population growth slows
Birthrate drops (becomes similar to death rate) Many developing countries are in the industrial state |
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Postindustrial State
|
Population approaches/reaches ZPG
populations may drop below ZPG (Russia, Japan, South Africa) |
|
Factors that have contributed to the increase in the world human population
|
1) availability of clean water
2) sanitary waste disposal 3) better medical care 4) increase in food production |
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Macronutrients
|
Needed in large amounts
proteins, carbohydrates, fats |
|
Micronutients
|
These are needed in smaller amounts
vitamins, iron, calcium |
|
hunger
|
poor nutrition that results from an insufficient or poorly balanced diet
840 million people are hungry 30% of USA population is considered obese some countries can't produce enough food and there is a trade imbalance between countries with food and countries without |
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Malnutrition
|
Poor nutrition that comes from a nonbalanced diet
These diets lack essential vitamins and other components |
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Undernourished
|
have not been provided with a sufficient quantity of food!!
(less than 3,500 calories) Our Earth produces enough food, there is just unequal distribution because not everyone can afford to pay for the food China is working actively to combat these problems |
|
How do developing nations solve food problems
|
the only nolution is to enable communities to become self-sufficient
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|
World Trade Organization (WTO)
|
controls the policies of international trade
stronger nations have more influence than smaller ones |
|
Describe the number of people going to urban places in a word + facts
|
"growing"
75% of the US population lives in a city 50% of the world population lives in an urban area Aging population moves to cities because of cultural activities, jobs, and healthcare |
|
Suburbs
|
Satellite communities of cities
People can afford to live here because gas is cheap and they can drive cars to cities People have their own space and don't have to share it! People here occupy 11x more space than people in cities |
|
Urban Sprawl
|
The emigration of people FROM a city to the suburbs
|
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Urban areas
|
People are closer and more concentrated
more people means more water use -> crowdrd areas means water shortages have led to the implementation of restrictions on water uses A lot of waste in cities |
|
Alternative modes of transport
|
1) mass transit (subways and buses
2) car pulling 3) bikes motor scooters 4) subways |
|
Benefits of alternative transport
|
1) less congestion on roads
2) less pollution put off into the environment |
|
Sustainable Cities
|
Boulder, Colorado = green policies
- have bike paths all over city - provides parking areas for those who carpool - strong recycling program reduces amount of stuff in landfills - open green spaces for recreation - providing education - making a city self sufficient |
|
Ecological Footprint
|
the environmental impact of a population
amount of Earth's surface that a population needs to use to maintain its needs and dispose of its waste America's = 9.7 per capita |
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Threatened
|
number of individuals of a species is quite low
in danger of being endangered |
|
Endangered
|
The species is in imminent danger of going extinct
|
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Background Extinction Rate
|
The natural rate of extinction
|
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Endangered Species Traits
|
1) K-selected species usually (low reproductive rates)
2) higher levels in the food chain (low population numbers) 3) Specialized feeding habitats 4) need large ranges of habitat to survive |
|
Habitat Fragmentation
|
When habitats are broken into smaller pieces due to human development
Destroys populations |
|
Habitat Degredation
|
1) adding pollutants to the environment
2) contruction/development |
|
How to lower habitat destruction
|
1) set up national parks where development is not allowed
2) live sustainibly, stop polluting! 3) breed animals until their populations get high enough to go back into the wild |
|
Marine Mammals Protection Act
|
Protects marine mammals from falling below their optimum sustainable population levels
|
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Endanges Species Act Program for the protection of threatened plants and animals and their habitats
|
Prohibts the commerce of those species considered to be endangered or threatened
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CITES
|
bans the hunting, capturing, and selling of endangered and threatened speicies
|
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resource
|
an available supply that can be drawn on as needed
have prices put on them |
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Conservation
|
The management/regulation of a resource so that its use does not exceed the capacity of the resource to regenerate itself
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Preservation
|
maintaining a species/ecosystem in order to ensure their perpetuation
No concern of monetary value |
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Natural Resources
|
Abiotic
|
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Ecosystem Capital
|
Putting an economic value on something
Nautral resources are described in terms of their value |
|
Renewable Resources
|
Resources that can be regenerated quickly
(biomass - plants and animals) |
|
Nonrenewable Resources
|
Cannot be regenerated quickly
(minerals, fossil fuels, soil) |
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Consumption
|
day-to-day use of environmental resources like food, clothing, and housing
|
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Production
|
the use of the environmental resources for profit
|
|
Where does food come from?
|
77% = croplands
16% = grazing lands 7% = ocean resources |
|
Rises in industrial production
|
1) machinery to help with agriculture
2) fertilizers 3) pesticides 4) new, more resistant crop strains |
|
Negative Impacts of increased agriculture
|
1) decreased biodiversity
2) increased erosion |
|
Traditional Subsistence Agriculture
|
Provides only enough food for the family's survival
Labor done by the family and by animals Still practices by 42% of the world's population (namely developing nations) |
|
Slash and Burn
|
Traditional Agricultural method still practicd in developing countries
1) vegetation cut down and burned before being planted with crops 2) people leave after a few years because soils in developing nations are poor 3) they find a new location to clear |
|
Green Revolution
|
farming became mechanized and crop yields in industrial nations boomed
founded by Norman Borlaug (who dedicated his life to wheat improvement) |
|
Green Movement
|
Conservation!
|
|
Norman Borlaug
|
His work improves strains of wheat
more wheat produced per unit acre -> means less land must be used for cultivation = more biodiversity |
|
Inorganic Chemical Fertilizers
|
brough huge increases in farm production suring the Green Revolution
without them, world agricultural production would drop 40% |
|
chemical fertilizers (cons)
|
- reduction of organic matter and oxygen in the soil
- fertilizers = lots of energy to produce, transport, and supply - leach into watersheds and cause negative effects |
|
How long can pesticides be used before its target insect evolves to become immune to its effects?
|
5-10 years
|
|
FIFRA
|
the EPA must approve the use of all pesticides in the united states
|
|
Irrigation
|
Increasd the agricultural yields
repeated irrigation can cause significant buildup of salts on the soi's surface that make the land unusable for crops |
|
Salinization
|
the buildup of salt on the soils surface rendering soil unusable
causes water table of the region to rise to combat this, farmers use lots of water, but this can destroy plant roots (by waterlogging) |
|
Golden Rice
|
Genetically engineered crop that contains vitamin A and iron
introduction of this rice helps 2 things in developing countries: Vitamin A deficiency (leads to blindness) and iron deficiency (anemia) |
|
Monoculture
|
14 plants and 8 animal species provide 90% of the world's caloric intake
Loss in biodiversity Just one plant is put in a large area |
|
Rice, Wheat, Corn
|
provide more than half of the world's total calories
increase in yield is due to genetic engineering |
|
Soil Conservation Act
|
Brought up after the Dust Bowl in 1935
|
|
Terracing
|
- prevents soil erosion
- makes a flat surface for the plants to grow on - flat surfaces are cut into hillsides |
|
Contour Plowing
|
- rows of crops are plowed across the hillside
- prevents the erosion that can occur when rows are cut up and down on a slope |
|
No-Till Methods
|
farmers plant seeds without using a plow to turn the soil
|
|
Plowing (Tilling)
|
soil loses carbon when it is plowed
when it is plowed, CO2 gets released into the atmosphere |
|
Crop Rotation
|
provides the soils with nutrients when legumes are part of the cycle
|
|
Intercropping/Strip cropping
|
planting bands of different crops across a hillside
prevents erosion by created an extensive root system Plant roots hold soil in place to prevent erosion |
|
Overgrazing
|
if the grass is consumed at a rate faster than it can grow
Leads to erosion and soil compaction |
|
Grazing animals consume how much of the total grain crop in the US?
|
70%
|
|
What % of the original American forests are left
|
5%
|
|
How does the number of trees growing now compare to the number of trees that grew 100 years ago
|
Their numbers are the same
|
|
Deforestation
|
The removal of trees for agricultural purposes, purposes of exportation
mostly in developing countries (little deforestation in industrilalized countries) mostly for development in the USA Habitat destruction, loss of biodiversity, erosion, depletion of nutrients in the soil |
|
Old growth forests
|
never been hurt
lots of biodiversity many niches for organisms |
|
Second Growth Forest
|
Cutting has occured
New, younger trees have growth here |
|
plantations/tree farms
|
unnatural forests
same age, commercial use, less biodiversity |
|
Silviculture
|
the management of forest plantations for the purpose of harvesting timber
done in two ways: 1) clear cutting 2) selective cutting |
|
Clear-Cutting
|
Removal of all the trees in an area
Typically done in areas that support fast growing trees (pines) |
|
Selective Cutting
|
Uneven-aged management, shelter-wood cutting
|
|
Agroforestry
|
mutulistic relationship
trees and crops are planted together trees create habitats for animals that prey pon pests that harm crops roots stabilize and enrich soil |
|
Surface Fire
|
Burn underbrush
protect trees from more harmful fires by removing underbrush and dead materials |
|
Crown Fires
|
Start on the ground/in canopies
have not experienced recent surface fires Spread quickly, high temps -> consume underbrush and dead material on the forest floor |
|
Ground Fires
|
Bogs and swamps
Difficult to detect and extinguish |
|
By catch
|
when organisms that are not the target fish are caught
results from driftnets, longnets, and bottom trawling |
|
Driftnets
|
Dragged through the water and indiscriminately catch everything in its path
|
|
Long lining
|
many baited hooks
many organisms eat the food and get caught (by catch) turtles and shark populations are depleted |
|
Bottom Trawling
|
Ocean floor is scraped by heavy nets
everything in its path is destroyed including seamounts (underwater mountains) |
|
How much of the fish stock has been exploited?
|
50%
20% overexploited 10% depleted |
|
Aquaculture
|
Solution to the problem of overfishing
only raises the organisms w/ highest economic value (salmon, shrimp) Can introduce disease to the native gene pool of organisms Aquaculture fish are captured and fed wild fish (which ruins trying to use less fish) |
|
Marine Mammal Protection Act
|
Established a federal responsibilty to conserve marine mammals
|
|
Coral Reefs
|
Cnidarians and Zooxanthellae create Coral Reefs
|
|
Mangrove Swamps
|
Another threatened aquatic species
These swamps hold lots of biodiversity Are falling due to aquaculture |
|
Metallic Minerals
|
mined for their metals
extracted through smelting and many purposes |
|
Nonmetallic Minerals
|
used in their natural state
Nothing is extracted from them |
|
Mineral Deposit
|
An area in which a particular mineral is concentrated
|
|
Ore
|
rock or mineral from which a valuble substance can be extracted at a profit
|
|
Mining process effect on land
|
revolves around the damage that is done during the extraction process
Disrupts ecosystems and scars the land Leaves pollutants (produces sulfuric acid) responsible for much of the pollution today (because of the burning of fossil fuels that it takes to mine and process ore) |
|
Refining Ore
|
this process of refining the ore leaves pollutants in both the air and water
takes extensive energy input |
|
Gangue
|
The waste product of mining
|
|
Tailings
|
the piles of gangue (waste product)
|
|
RCRA
|
Regulated some mineral processing wastes
|
|
Cost-benefit analysis
|
when you weigh the costs of an action against its benefits
|
|
Marginal Costs
|
The additional costs
|
|
Marginal Benefits
|
The additional benefits
|
|
externalities
|
as we use resources, there are unwanted or unanticipated consequences that arise from our using a resource
Can be positive when the result is good for the environment Can be negative when the result is bad for the environment |
|
Economics (cost-benefit, marginal costs/benefits, externalities)
|
These are all NEUTRAL
analyze objectively |
|
Sulfuric Acid
|
Mostly found in mine drainage
|
|
Kinetic Energy
|
Energy in motion
|
|
Potential Energy
|
Energy at rest
|
|
Radiant Energy
|
sunlight
|
|
convection
|
transfer of heat by the mvmt of heated matter
|
|
conduction
|
the transfer of energy through matter from particle to particle
|
|
What is one of the biggest uses of energy?
|
Production of electricity
we use tons of energy to produce electricity |
|
Generalized Picture of the Production of electricity
|
1) energy source provides power to heat up water -> makes water steam
2) steam turns turbines (kinetic energy -> mechanical energy) 3) Stator rotates over the rotor causing magnets to pass over the wire coils generating flow of electrons through a copper wire |
|
Fossil Fuels supply how much of the world's electricity?
|
64%
|
|
Nuclear Energy Provides what % of the world's electricity
|
17%
|
|
Renewable Energy Sources provide how much of the world's electricity?
|
19% of the world's
|
|
Main fossil fuels in the industrial revolution
|
firewood and coal
|
|
Main fossil fuel today
|
oil (35% of the total global energy)
|
|
Fossil Fuels
|
made up of the fossilized remains of once living organisms
(pressurized and intense heat make them fossil fuels) |
|
Natural Gas
|
Made of methane gas
|
|
Seams
|
these are long continuous deposits of coal at various depths underground
|
|
Exploratory Wells
|
Probe and sample a specific to see if there are any fossil fuels
can provide an estimate of the fuel that's in that area |
|
Proven wells
|
a site where there is proven to be fossil fuels (by means of exploratory reserves)
|
|
Crude Oil
|
When oil is pumped from a fresh reserve
|
|
Shale oil/Tar sands
|
also have oil reserves
|
|
Methods of extracting oil
|
1) gusher - pressure of the oil makes oil spurt out of site
2) pressure extraction - (mud, saltwater) to push oil oil 3) steam, hot water, hot gases partially melt thick crude oil and make it easier to extract |
|
Types of coal (from purest to least pure)
|
antracite -> bituminous -> subbituminous -> lignite
|
|
Strip mining
|
removal of earth's surface to the level of the coal seam
overburden is replaced after |
|
Underground mining
|
networks/tunnels are blasted
humans go in to manually retrieve coal |
|
Over burden
|
produced in surface mining -> is replaced afer
|
|
Scrubbers
|
Used to clean coal
this eliminates a lot of the soil let off |
|
Fly Ash/Boiler Residue
|
Waste products from the burning of coal
|
|
Burning coal with limestone
|
sulfur combines w/ calcium in limestone to create calcium sulfate (doesn't go into atmosphere)
|
|
Natural Gas
|
Made mostly of methane
methane can be produced by anaerobic bacteria produces CO2 and water when it burns (less output than other fossil fuels). This is because of its simple molecular structure can cause violent explosions and can leak into the atmosphere |
|
Nuclear power
|
completely clean!
|
|
Chernobyl Factor in Russia
|
explosion of a nuclear reactor
|
|
Safety Issues w/ nuclear power
|
- Highly explosive
- the biproducts can be used to synthesize nuclear weapons - safety/radioactive elements - can only be used for a few years |
|
Nuclear Waste
|
Stored in the Yucca Mountains
nuclear waste = hard to dispose of |
|
Hydroelectric Power
|
Results in silting (removed by dredging)
|
|
Active Collection (solar energy)
|
the use of devices like (solar panels) to collect, focus, transport, and store solar energy
|
|
photovoltaic cells
|
their production requires the use of fossil fuels
|
|
Nacelle
|
the base of a windmill
|
|
Wind Energy
|
the fastest growing alternative energy source
usually placed in wind farms/parks initially more expensive than fossil fuels -> they are expensive to build |
|
Geothermal energy
|
naturally heated water from the earth's interior turn turbines creating electricity
is renewable if used correctly water from interior can be pumped through homes to heat them |
|
Hyrdogen cells
|
the safest, cleanest, form of energy
uses hydrogen atoms from water to synthesize energy (electrolysis) only waste is water vapor These have high costs hydrogen can be taken from organisms, but this causes release of fossil fuels |
|
Toxin
|
any substance inhaled, ingested or absorbed that does significant damage
|
|
LD50
|
the dosage of toxin it takes to kill 50% of the test animals
|
|
ED50
|
the dose at which individuals show a negative effect from the toxin
|
|
Threshold Dose
|
the dosage at which a negative effect occurs
|
|
infection
|
the result of a pathogen entering the body
|
|
disease
|
occurs when the infection causes a change in the state of health
|
|
pathogens
|
bacteria that cause disease
|
|
Point Source pollution
|
specific location from which pollution is released
factory or a site where wood is being burned |
|
Non=point source
|
could come from another source
|
|
Criteria Pollutants
|
CO (carbon monoxide)
Pb (lead) Ozone (O3) Nitrogen Dioxide (N2) Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) Particulates |
|
Carbon Monoxide
|
Binds irreversibly to hemoglobin the blood -> causes humans to die
hemoglobin has more of an affinity for CO than for Oxygen ... so CO has a better chance of binding |
|
Particulate
|
Small solid particle that can be suspended in the air
|
|
Lead
|
causes nervous system disorders and mental retardation
|
|
Tropospheric ozone
|
secondary pollutant
formed by Nitrogen Oxide, Heat, Sunlight, and VOCs |
|
Nitrogen dioxide
|
formed when atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen react when exposed to high temperatures
occurs in combustion of engines |
|
Sulfur dioxide
|
Powerful irritant
|
|
CFCs
|
create ozone
used in aerosols, fire extinguishers, and as refrigerants. They migrate to the stratosphere. UV rays break them up into ClO and ozone into 02 and |
|
When is the loss of ozone the greatest?
|
In the spring as the chlorine breaks down ozone into O@
Chlorine acts as a catalyse |
|
When is production of ozone the greatest
|
summer when UV rays catalize the reaction again
|
|
Where are the holes in the ozone layer located?
|
Most seriously over antarctica where UV rays are the strongest
|
|
Catalytic Converters
|
control car emissions
changes CO and VOCs to CO2 |
|
Electric Cars
|
limited power ranges
lacked the amenities of a normal car (AC) |
|
Why indoor pollution is such a big deal
|
1) Number of hours people spend indoors
2) People in developing countries use waste or wood to cook food -> the waste products of this burning is not acceptable at high levels |
|
VOCs
|
the most abundant indoor air pollutant (found in carpet and everywhere)
|
|
Two of the most bad indoor pollutants in developing countries are
|
radon (can give rise to lung cancer - emitted by uranium as it undergoes radioactive decay
tabacco smoke (second hand smoke can give rise to lung cancer) |
|
Bacteria and things
|
are indoor pollutants
they can cause asthma attacks! |
|
Thermal pollution (how to fix it)
|
1) make buildings out of more reflective materials
2) plants trees on roofs - shades buildings and transpiration of plants provides a cooling effect 3) Green Spaces reduce runoff by trapping the water and distributing it more evenly across a larger surface area |
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Thermal Pollution
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the water in cities is affected by runoff
the asphalt makes it collect in pools -> it's harder for evaporation to occur in these pools of water than when evaporation is spread out over a large quantity of land |
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Convergent boundary
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->|<-
The two plates are coming together. One of these plates is pushed towards to mantle |
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Plate boundaries
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the places where two plates meet
this is where events such as sea floor spreading and most volcanoes/earthquakes occur |
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Divergent boundary
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<-|->
Two plates move away from one another |
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Divergent boundary gap
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The gap between the divergent boundary is filled with magma and when it cools, new crust it formed
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Transform fault boundary
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two plates slide from side to side relative to each other
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Subduction
Note: Subduction can only occur when an ocean plate is involved in the convergence |
Results when theres an ocean-ocean plate converging and a ocean-continental plate converging
The heavy ocean plate is pushed below and it melts as it enters the mantle |
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Active Volcanoes
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Are erupting or have erupted within recent history
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Dormant Volcanoes
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Have not been known to erupt
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Extinct Volcanoes
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Won't erupt again
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Rift Volcanoes
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(active)
when plate move away from each other New ocean floor is made by magma in the volcano |
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Hotspot Volcanoe
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don't form at the margin of plates
these are found over areas where magma has been known to arise |
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Subduction Volcanoes
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Where plates collide and slide over each other
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Earthquakes
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the result of vibrations deep in the Earth that release energy
Often occur at transform boundaries |
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Focus of Earthquakes
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Begins within the earth
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Epicenter
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is at the locus on the surface
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Tsunamis
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Giant waves generated by Earthquakes
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Rock Cycle
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The cycling of rocks. three stages include
1) sedimentary rock 2) metamorphic rock 3) igneous rock |
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sedimentary rock
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formed as sediment builds up
can occur at a subduction zone (oceans sediments pushed on earth and compression example of sedimentary = limestone |
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Metamorphic Rock
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undergoes pressure and heat is applied to the rock
slate |
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Igneous Rock
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occurs when rock is melted then cooled
Solid lava is igneous rock BaSALt |
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Igneous Rock -> Metamorphic Rock
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Igneous Rocks can become metamorphic if they undergo proper pressure
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O horizon
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uppermost layer of the soil
Made of organic material - organic wastes - dead bodies |
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humus
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dead organic material that turns rumbly
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Salinization
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due to irrigation the soil gets dried out and salt accumulates in the soil
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Drip irrigation
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only gives an area the amount of water that is necessary
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Soil Conservation
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1) low till/no till
2) plant trees/more plants -> roots hold soil together 3) contour farming |
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Greenhouse Effect
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Solar radiation absorbed by earth/some reflected
Earth lets off infared radiation and some of this is reabsorbed at emited by greenhosue gases |
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Mesosphere
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where meteors build up
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Thermosphere
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Receives most photons from the sun
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Doldrums
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Their air is constantly rising and not blowing (5 north and 5 south of the equator).
These are very stormy regions |
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Monsoons
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caused by the fact that land heats and cools more quickly than water does
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Littoral Zone
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Begins w/ very shallow water at the shoreline
Plants and animals that reside here have lots of sunlight |
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Limnetic Zone
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Surface of open water
Region extends to the dept that sunlight can penetrate Organisms here are short lived are require photosynthesis |