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693 Cards in this Set
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Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
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A scientific approach for discovering environmental variables that reliably influence socially significant behavior and for developing a technology of behavior change that is practical and applicable - Evidence-based APPLIED science |
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Science |
A systematic approach for seeking and organizing knowledge about the natural world. Science is based on Determinism |
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Purpose of Science |
To achieve a through understanding of the phenomena under study. In ABA, the phenomena are socially important behaviors |
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3 Levels of Scientific Understanding |
- Description - Prediction - Control |
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Description
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Systematic observations that can be quantified and classified. Not causal explanations |
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Prediction |
Two events may regularly occur at the same time. This does not necessarily mean one causes the other. |
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Control |
Functional Relation. The highest level of scientific understanding. Experimental demonstration that manipulating one event (i.e., independent variable) results in another event (i.e., dependent variable) |
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6 Attitudes of Science/ Philosophical Assumptions of Behavior |
- Determinism - Empiricism - Experimentation - Replication - Parsimony - Philosophical Doubt |
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Determinism
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- Cause and effect - Lawfulness: if/then statements - The world is ordinary and predictable - Assumption of Science.Behavior is caused by some event. |
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Empiricism |
- FACTS - Experimental, data-based scientific approach, drawing upon observation and experience - Requires objective quantification and detailed description of events - Assumption of Science.Information is collected by objective observations |
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Experimentation |
- The basic strategy of most sciences - Requires manipulating variables so as to see the effects on the dependent variable (DV) - An assessment to determine if one event caused another event - Requires that all variables be controlled except the DV |
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Replication |
- Repeating experiments
- The method that scientists use to determine the reliability and usefulness of their findings - How scientists discover their mistakes, thus making science a self-correcting enterprise |
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Parsimony |
- The simplest theory - All simple and logical explanations must be ruled out before considering more complex explanations - Helps scientists fit findings within the field's existing knowledge base - Assumption of Science. Thesimplest explanation of behavior should be provided, all else being equal |
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Philosophical Doubt |
Having healthy skepticism and a critical eye about the results of studies and your work with clients |
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What is the acronym for the 6 attitudes of science/philosophical assumptions of behavior? |
DEER PP |
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What is the acronym for the 3 scientific levels of understanding? |
DPC |
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What is the acronym for the 7 Dimensions of ABA? |
BATCAGE |
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What are the 7 Dimensions of ABA? |
- Behavioral - Applied - Technological - Conceptually Sytematic - Analytical - Generality - Effective |
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Behavioral |
Behavior must be observable and measurable (e.g. not a description of feelings) |
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Applied |
Behavior must be SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT. Also helps significant others (e.g., parents, peers, employers, etc.) so that they behave more positively towards the client |
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Technological |
- Intervention must demonstrate control over the behavior - Defines procedures clearly and in detail so they are replicable - Provides written detail of procedures to permit replication of techniques in other settings. |
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Conceptually Systematic |
All procedures used should be tied to the basic principles of behavior analysis from which they were derived - Procedures are tied to the basic principles of behavior - Use appropriate terminology and behavioral concepts |
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Analytical |
- Functional relationship is demonstrated - Describes when the experimenter has demonstrated a functional relation between the manipulated events and a reliable change in some measurable dimension of the targeted behavior - Ultimate issue is believably: is the experimental control sufficient to prove a reliable functional relation? |
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Generality |
- Extends behavior change across time, settings, or other behaviors - Must demonstrate maintenance and generalization of the behavior |
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Effective |
- Improves behavior in a practical manner, not simply making a change that is statistically significant - Demonstrate a meaningful change in the desired behavior |
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Mentalism Terminology |
- Hypothetical construct - Explanatory fiction - Circular reasoning |
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Mentalism |
An approach to explaining behavior that assumes an inner dimension exists and causes behavior |
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Hypothetical Constructs |
- Imaginary Constructs - Presumed, but unobserved process or entities |
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Explanatory Fictions |
- Fictitious variables that are another name for the observed behavior. They contribute nothing to an understanding of the variables responsible for maintaining behaving - Words that are associated with explanatory fiction include the following: "knows", "wants", "figures out", etc. |
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Circular Reasoning |
The cause and effect are both inferred from the same information |
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Behaviorism |
- The philosophy of the science of behavior - Environmental explanation of behavior |
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What is the acronym for the 4 branches of behavior analysis? |
CASE |
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What are the 4 branches of behavior analysis? |
- Conceptual Analysis of Behavior - ABA - Behavior Service Delivery - Experimental Analysis of Behavior |
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Conceptual Analysis of Behavior (4 branches of behavior analysis) |
Examines philosophical, theoretical, historical, and methodological issues |
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ABA (4 branches of behavior analysis) |
- Refers to behavior analysts that assess, monitor, analyze, revise (if needed), and communicate the effects of their work - They create behavior-change tactics that can increase behavior, teach and maintain behavior, make behavior sensitive to environmental events, generalize behavior, reduce problem behavior, etc. - Technology for improving behavior |
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Behavior Service Delivery (4 branches of behavior analysis) |
- Refers to the many people in various fields of work (not BCBAs/BCaBAs) implementing ABA within their professionals - Think of education, sports, psychology, job safety, health, business, animal training, commerce, etc. - Because ABA has a lot of research to support it, other professions and/or people implement ABA strategies |
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Experimental Analysis of Behavior (4 branches of behavior analysis) |
- Research on basic processes and principles - Done mainly in laboratories |
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Ivan Petrovich Pavlov |
- Classical conditioning- respondent conditioning with dogs - 1906 Pavlov published first studies |
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John Broadus Watson |
- First person to describe behaviorism as a formal system - Methodological behaviorism only looks at publicly observable events in their analysis of behavior - They do NOT concern themselves with private events - Watson said we should study behavior by direct observation of the relationship between environmental stimuli (S) and the responses (R) they bring about |
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Burrhous Frederic Skinner |
- Skinner unveiled radical behaviorism to the world - It is called RADICAL BEHAVIORISM because it included private events into an understanding of behavior |
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How Did Skinner Come Up with Radical Behaviorism? |
- Darwinian Selectionism - Pragmatism |
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Darwinian Selectionism |
- 3-term conitngency with regard to SPECIES and survival - A belief that all forms of life, form a single cells to complex cultures, evolve as a result of selection with respect to function - Selection by consequences operates during the lifetime of the individual and it is similar to natural selection in the evolutionary history of species - Operant selection by consequences requires variation in behavior. Behaviors that result in the best outcomes are selected and survive, leading to more adaptive repertoires |
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Pragmatism |
- A probabilistic AB-because-of-C philosophy. At the level of behavior, the relation between the setting (A) and the behavior (B) is because of the consequence - It focuses on answering the questions, "how do things come to be as they are?" and "how can things be changed?" - Originally developed by Charles S. Peirce and William James, the doctrine stresses that the meaning of an idea or a position lies in its observable practical consequences, rather than by theory or dogma |
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What are the two primary types of behavior? |
- Respondent behavior - Operant behavior |
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What are the different types of respondent behavior?
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Elicited, involuntary, reflex, reflexive relations, unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, habituation |
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Elicited |
"brought" out by stimuli that immediately precede them (i.e., antecedent stimuli) |
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Reflex |
The eliciting stimulus (i.e. unconditioned stimulus or US) and the behavior it produces (i.e. unconditioned response or UR) that is part of an organism's genetic endowment |
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Habituation |
When the eliciting stimulus is presented repeatedly over a short time, the strength of the respondent behavior diminishes |
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Respondent Behavior |
The response component of a reflex; behavior that is elicited, or induced, by antecedent stimuli behaviors someone does not have to learn |
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Phylogenic/Phylogeny |
- Behavior that is inherited genetically - Respondent behavior is due to phylogenic history |
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Respondent Conditioning |
- Ivan Pavlov - When new stimuli acquire the ability to elicit respondents |
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US |
Unconditioned Stimulus |
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Unconditioned Stimulus |
Stimulus that elicits a behavior without any history or prior learning |
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UR |
Unconditioned Response |
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Unconditioned Response |
Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus |
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NS |
Neutral Stimulus |
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Neutral Stimulus |
Stimulus that does not elicit a response prior to conditioning |
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CR |
Conditioned Response |
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Conditioned Response |
A response elicited by a conditioned stimulus |
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CS |
Conditioned Stimulus |
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Conditioned Stimulus |
A neutral stimulus that comes to elicit through pairing with a unconditioned stimulus |
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Operant Behavior |
Behavior that is selected, maintained, and brought under stimulus control as a function of its consequences; each person's repertoire of operant behavior is a product of his history of interactions with the environment
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What are the different types of Behaviorism?
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- Methodological behaviorism - Radical behaviorism |
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Methodological Behaviorism |
A philosophical position that views behavioral events that cannot be publicly observed as outside the realm of science |
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Radical Behaviorism |
Attempts to understand all human behavior, including private events such as thoughts and feelings, in terms of controlling variables in the history of the person and the species |
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Adaptation
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Reductions in responding evoked by an antecedent stimulus over repeated or prolonged presentations |
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Ontogenic/Ontogeny |
Learning that results from an organism's interaction with his/her environment. The history of the development of an individual organism during its lifetime |
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Operant Contingency |
The dependency of a particular consequence on the occurrence of the behavior. When a reinforcer or punisher is said to be "contingent" on a behavior, the behavior must be emitted for the consequence to occur |
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What is the primary unit of analysis in ABA?
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3-Term Contingency (A-B-C) |
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Contiguity |
When 2 stimuli occur close together IN TIME, resulting in an association of those 2 stimuli |
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How does contiguity apply to respondent conditioning? |
Temporal contiguity (i.e. how close together in time) affects the pairing of the CS and US |
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How does contiguity apply to operant conditioning? |
Temporal contiguity (how close together in time) affects the pairing of the behavior and consequence. |
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Respondent Operant Interactions |
An experience can often include both respondent and operant conditioning that occur together at the same time |
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What is not behavior? |
- Being hungry - Being anxious - Getting wet - Receiving money - Being blown over by a strong gust of wind |
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What is the "dead man test"?
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"If a dead man can do it, it ain't behavior. And if a dead man can't do it, then it is behavior" |
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What are the 3 principles of behavior? |
Scientifically derived rules of nature that describe the predictable relation between a biological organism's responses and objects and events that can influence behavior.
- Punishment - Extinction - Reinforcement |
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What does PER stand for?
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- Punishment
- Extinction - Reinforcement |
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Response |
A single instance of behavior, measurable unit of analysis in the science of behavior. |
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Behavior vs. Response |
Behavior: larger set/class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions VS. Response: A single instance of behavior |
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Response Class |
A group of responses of varying topography all of which produce the same effect on the environment |
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Can responses in the same response class look different? |
Yes. Membership in the same response class may have widely varying form whereas topographical variations among members of other response classes are limited |
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Repertoire |
- All the behaviors that an individual can do - A collection of knowledge and skills an individual has learned that are relevant to a particular task |
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Environment |
Complex, dynamic universe of events that differs from instance to instance; All behaviors within an environmental context
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Stimuli |
Physical events that affect the behavior of an individual; stimuli may be internal or external to the individual; A stimulus is an energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells; Stimuli may occur prior to, during, or after a behavior; Stimuli may be described formally temporally and functionally |
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3 Types of Nervous Systems (that are affected by stimuli) |
- Proprioceptive - Interoceptive - Exteroceptive |
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Proprioceptive |
Stimulation from joints, tendons, muscles, etc., necessary for posture, balance and movement (related to internal events) |
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Interoceptive |
Stimulation from organs; related to internal events |
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Exteroceptive |
Think 5 senses: hearing, seeing, touching, smelling, and tasting |
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Stimulus Class |
A group of antecedent stimuli that has a common effect on an operant class; group members of a stimulus class tend to evoke or abate the same behavior or response class, yet may vary across physical dimensions |
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3 types of stimulus classes |
Formal Temporal Functional |
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What does FTF stand for? |
Formal Temporal Functional |
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Formal Stimulus Class |
Physical features of stimuli - common topographies - common relative relations - infinite number of stimuli - developed through stimulus generalization |
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Temporal Stimulus Class |
Refers to TIME; Stimulus changes that exist or occur prior to the behavior of interest and stimulus changes that follow a behavior of interest |
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Functional Stimulus Class |
Stimulus changes are understood best through a functional analysis of their effects on behavior; The effect of the stimulus on the behavior; there can be multiple functions of a single stimulus |
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Arbitrary Stimulus Class |
Stimuli comprising this class evoke the same response, but they do NOT share a common stimulus feature. They do not physically look alike or share a relative relationship - Limited number of stimuli - Developed through stimulus equivalence |
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Consequences |
One affect FUTURE behavior; Consequences select response classes, NOT individual responses |
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Automaticity (of reinforcement and punishment) |
A person does not have to know what a consequence means for it to work; operant conditioning occurs automatically |
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Automatic Reinforcement |
Reinforcement that occurs independent of the social mediation of others. Other people do NOT deliver the consequence. Naturally produced sensory consequences. You can have automatic reinforcement that is negative or positive |
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Automatic Punishment |
Punishment that occurs independent of the social mediation of others. Other people do not deliver the consequence. |
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Positive Reinforcement |
A process that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the presentation of a stimulus that increases the future frequency of the behavior in similar conditions |
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What are the 5 types of positive reinforcers?
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- Edible - Activity - Tangible - Social - Sensory |
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What does EATSS stand for? |
- Edible - Activity - Tangible - Social - Sensory |
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Negative Reinforcement |
A process that occurs when a behavior is followed immediately by the reduction or removal of a stimulus that increases the future frequency of the behavior in similar conditions |
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Escape |
A response that stops an ongoing aversive stimulus |
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Avoidance |
A response that prevents or postpones the presentation of a stimulus |
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What are the two types of avoidance? |
- Discriminated Avoidance - Free-Operant Avoidance |
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Discriminated Avoidance |
A contingency in which responding in the presence of a signal prevents the onset of a stimulus from which escape is a reinforcer; Warning |
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Free-Operant Avoidance |
A contingency in which responses at any time during the interval prior to the scheduled onset of an aversive stimulus delays the presentation of the aversive stimulus. The avoidance behavior is "free" to occur at any time |
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What is unethical about negative reinforcement? |
Creating an aversive condition for the individual is unethical and may even bring about more challenging behaviors |
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Unconditioned Reinforcer/ Reinforcement
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A stimulus change that can increase the future frequency of behavior without prior pairing with any other form of reinforcement; no learning history is required |
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Conditioned Reinforcer/ Reinforcement |
When a previously neutral stimulus acquires the ability to function as a reinforcer through stimulus-stimulus pairing with one or more unconditioned or conditioned reinforcers; Learning history required |
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Generalized Conditioned Reinforcer |
A type of conditioned reinforcer that has been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned reinforcers; Does not depend on a motivating operation (MO) for its effectiveness |
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Punishment |
When a response is followed immediately by a stimulus that decreases the future frequency of similar responses |
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Are threats punishments? |
No, threats are not punishments. If a person stops a behavior when you threaten them, this is NOT because of punishment, but because the threat functions as the motivating operation (MO) that evokes alternative behaviors that avoid the threatened punishment |
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Recovery from Punishment |
When punishment is stopped, its effects on the behavior are not permanent. The rate of the behavior will increase back to its original rate (and sometimes exceed it). Equivalent to extinction for reinforcement. |
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Punisher vs. Aversive Stimulus |
Punisher: a stimulus change that decreases the future frequency of the behavior that immediately precedes it VS. Aversive Stimulus: Unpleasant stimulus |
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Positive Punishment
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A process that occurs when the addition of a stimulus immediately following a behavior results in a decrease in the future frequency of the behavior |
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5 Types of Positive Punishments Interventions |
- Reprimands - Overcorrection - Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT - Exercise/ Contingent Exercise - Response Blocking |
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What does ROSER stand for?
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- Reprimands - Overcorrection - Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT - Exercise/ Contingent Exercise - Response Blocking |
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Overcorrection
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An individual is required to engage in effortful behavior that is directly related to the challenging behavior |
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What are the 2 types of overcorection?
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Restitutional Overcorrection Positive Practice Overcorrection |
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Restitutional Overcorrection |
Repair environment to its original state before the behavior and make it a lot better on top of that |
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Positive Practice Overcorrection |
Replacement behavior. The individual is required to repeatedly perform a correct form of the behavior for a certain amount of time of a certain number of times. Educative. |
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Shock/Contingent Electrical Stimulation/ECT |
Shock after an individuals behavior |
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Exercise/Contingent Exercise |
An individual is reacquired to perform a response not topographically related to the behavior
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Response Blocking |
Physically intervening as soon as the individual begins to emit the challenging behavior to "block" the completion of the response |
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Negative Punishment |
A process that occurs when a response is followed immediately by the removal of a stimulus (or a decrease in the intensity of a stimulus) that decreases the future frequency of similar responses under similar conditions |
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What are the 2 types of negative punishments?
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- Response cost - Time out |
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Response Cost |
Loss of a specific amount of reinforcement contingent on a behavior |
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What are the two types of response cost methods?
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- Bonus Response Cost - Direct Fines |
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Bonus Response Cost |
When you make additional non-contingent reinforcers available to the individual and then take those away |
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Direct Fines |
Direct loss of positive reinforcers |
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What are the 2 types of time-outs?
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- Non-exclusionary time-out - Exclusionary time-out |
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Non-Exclusionary Time-Out |
The individual is not removed from the space; These are preferred over exclusionary time-out methods because these are less restrictive |
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What are the 4 types of non-exclusionary time outs? |
- Ignoring/ Planned Ignoring - Withdrawal of a Specific Positive Reinforcer - Observation/Contingent Observation - Ribbon/Time-Out Ribbon |
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Ignoring/Planned Ignoring |
Social Reinforcers removed for a specific period of time |
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Withdrawal of a specific positive reinforcer |
Taking something preferred away |
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Observation/Contingent Observation |
The individual is repositioned in the room, so they can observe everything, but do not participate |
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Ribbon/Time-Out |
Colored band placed on the individual's wrist. This because discriminated for getting reinforcement. Ribbon on= can earn reinforcement Ribbon off= cannot earn reinforcement |
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Exclusionary Time-Out |
The individual is removed from space |
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What are the 3 types of exclusionary time-outs?
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- Room/time-out room - Partition time-out - Hallway time-out |
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Room/time-out room |
Confined space outside the individuals normal environment. Devoid of positive reinforcers. Make sure the individual is safely placed. Should be located near the time-in setting |
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Partition time-out |
Individual remains in the room, but his/her view is restricted by a wall or partition |
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Hallway time-out |
Individual sits in the hallway |
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Positive Punishment VS. Negative Reinforcement |
Similar: Both are called "aversive control" because aversive events are associated with both VS. Different: Effect on behavior |
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Unconditioned Punishers/ Punishment |
A stimulus change that decreases the frequency of any behavior that immediately precedes it irrespective of the organism's learning history with the stimulus; no learning history is required; Products of phylogeny. All members of species generally share the same unconditioned punishers |
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Conditioned Punishers/ Punishment |
A previously neutral stimulus that now functions as a punishers; learning history required; products of ontogeny |
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How do you establish new conditioned reinforcers and punishers for an individual? |
Through a pairing procedure; Pair the desired new conditioned reinforcer/punisher with an existing unconditioned or conditioned reinforcer/punisher for the individual repeatedly until the new conditioned reinforcer/punisher actually becomes a reinforcer/punisher for the individual independently |
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Generalized Conditioned Punishers (or Generalized Punishers) |
A type of conditioned punisher that has been paired with many unconditioned and conditioned punishers; do NOT depend on MO for its effectiveness; Likely to be punishing at any time |
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Verbal Analog Conditioning |
Verbal pairing procedure whereby previously neutral stimuli can become conditioned punishers or reinforcers for humans without direct pairing |
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Extinction |
A procedure that occurs when a previously reinforced response is discontinued, so that behavior decreases in the future; No reinforcement -> behavior decreases; A maintaining reinforcer is no longer provided |
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Why is extinction so hard for people to use? |
For extinction to be effective, reinforcers must be withheld all the time, not most of the time; Possible increases in other challenging behaviors; Gradual decrease in frequency and amplitude of behavior is common |
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What are the 3 types of extinction? |
- Positive Reinforcement - Automatic Reinforcement (Sensory Extinction) - Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction) |
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Positive Reinforcement (Extinction) |
If the function of an individual's behavior is attention, then ignoring is the correct form of extinction; If the function of an individual's behavior is tangibles, not giving the tangibles to him/her is the correct form of extinction |
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Automatic Reinforcement (Extinction) |
Mask or remove the sensory consequence |
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Negative Reinforcement (Extinction) |
Individual cannot escape aversive situation |
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Extinction Burst |
An immediate increase in the frequency of responding when an extinction procedure is initially implemented |
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Spontaneous Recovery |
A typical pattern in which the behavior that diminished during the extinction process reoccurs; The behavior reoccurs even though the behavior has NOT been reinforced; It is NOT an indication that the extinction procedure is ineffective; it is usually short-lived and followed by a decrease in behavior |
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Resistance to Extinction |
- Long history of reinforcement - Intermittent schedules of reinforcement are more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement - High quality reinforcer - Large amount of reinforcer - Response requiring little effort - Number of previous extinction trials. This relates to intermittent schedules and these schedules are resistant to extinction |
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Operant Extinction Vs. Respondent Extinction |
Operant Extinction: Involves withholding reinforcement when the behavior occurs VS. Respondent Extinction: Involves the un-pairing of a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) |
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Stimulus Control |
When the rate/frequency, latency, duration, or amplitude of a response is altered in the presence of an antecedent stimulus; Stimulus control is acquired when responses are reinforced only in the presence of a specific stimulus and not in the presence of other stimuli |
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What are the two factors that affect stimulus control? |
Pre-Attending Skills Stimulus Salience |
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Pre-Attending Skills |
Looking at the instructor, looking at the materials, listening to directions, and sitting quietly for short periods of time; Must be taught BEFORE stimulus control |
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Stimulus Salience |
Prominence of the stimulus in a person's environment; Increased salience makes things easier to learn Stimulus salience is affected by 2 elements: - Masking - Overshadowing |
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Masking |
Even though a stimulus has acquired stimulus control over a behavior, a competing stimulus can block the evocative function of that stimulus; the behavior is already in the individual's repertoire, but is MASKED by other elements |
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Overshadowing |
The presence of one stimulus condition interferes with the acquisition of stimulus control by another stimulus; the individual cannot even learn the behavior because the learning is OVERSHADOWED by another element |
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Discriminative Stimulus (SD) |
A stimulus in the presence of which responses of some type have been reinforced and in the absence of which the same type of responses have occurred and not been reinforced in the past |
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Stimulus Delta |
A stimulus in the presence of which a given behavior has NOT produced reinforcement in the past; SDelta is not always zero reinforcement- it can be lesser quality or amount of reinforcement than the SD |
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Repertoire-Altering Effect |
When SD's and MO's are combined They share two things - Both occur BEFORE the behavior - Both have evocative functions |
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SD VS. MO |
MO: Something that changes the value of a stimulus as a reinforcer; related to the differential reinforcing effectiveness of an environmental event VS. SD: A response in the presence of an SD must produce more reinforcement than it does in its absence. The SD has to have the promise of the reinforcer based on the differential reinforcement history of that individual, but an MO is going to produce the response regardless of reinforcement history |
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Stimulus Generalization |
When an antecedent stimulus has a history of evoking a response that has been reinforced in its presence, the same type of behavior tends to be evoked by stimuli that share similar physical properties with the controlling antecedent stimulus |
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Stimulus Discrimination |
Occurs when new stimuli do NOT evoke the same response as the controlling stimulus |
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Are stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination relative relations? |
Yes Stimulus Generalization = loose degree of stimulus control Stimulus Discrimination = tight degree of stimulus control |
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Stimulus Discrimination Training |
A procedure in which responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition (the SD) but NOT in the presence of the other (SDelta) |
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Generalization Gradient |
A GRAPH of the extent to which behavior that has been reinforced in the presence of a specific stimulus condition is emitted in the presence of other stimuli; The gradient shows relative degree of stimulus generalization and stimulus control
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When your looking at the generalization gradient graph what does a fat slope and an increasing slope mean? |
Fat Slope = Little stimulus control Increasing Slope = Increasing stimulus control |
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Concept |
Concept is NOT mentalism; it is a product of both stimulus generalization and stimulus discrimination; Stimulus generalization within a stimulus class and stimulus discrimination between stimulus classes needed to form a concept; a concept requires an individual being able to discriminate between what is included in a stimulus class and what is excluded from that same stimulus class |
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How do we teach concepts? |
- Discrimination training is FUNDAMENTAL to teaching conceptual behavior - Exemplars of what the concept is and what the concept is not is needed |
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Simple Discrimination |
An antecedent evokes or abates the behavior; a 3 term contingency is involved: a discriminative stimulus -> response -> consequence |
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Matching-to-sample |
Selecting a comparison stimulus corresponding to a sample stimulus - you present the sample stimulus - you present other comparison stimuli to the individual - when the individual picks the picture of baby you reinforce - when the individual picks the cat (incorrect stimulus) you do not reinforce |
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What are the 2 types of match-to-sample procedures? |
Identity Matching-to-Sample Symbolic Matching-to-Sample |
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Identity Matching-to-Sample |
When the sample and comparison stimuli are physically identical |
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Symbolic Matching-to-Sample |
Matching-to-sample in which the relation between the sample and comparison stimuli is arbitrary
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Stimulus Equivalence |
The emergence of accurate responding to untrained and non-reinforced stimulus-stimulus conditions. Responses are reinforced in the presence of one stimulus condition, the SD, but not in the presence of the other stimulus, the SDelta |
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What are the 3 parts of stimulus equivalence? |
Reflexivity Symmetry Transitivity |
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Reflexivity |
Simple non-symbolic matching-to-sample; the behavior of matching the 2 identical stimuli are under reflexive stimulus control |
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Symmetry |
Occurs with reversibility of the sample stimulus and the comparison stimulus; the stimulus control of stimuli A and B are said to be symmetrical |
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Transitivity |
The final and critical test for stimulus equivalence; Requires demonstration of 3 untrained stimulus-stimulus sequences - A=B relation - B=C relation - A=C relation |
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Equivalence Class |
Results from stimulus equivalence training, the symbolic matching-to-sample; a set of arbitrary stimuli that need not to have common physical properties; an equivalence class is formed if all stimuli in that set are reflexive, symmetrical, and transitive with each other |
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Rule-Governed Behavior |
A verbal description of a behavioral contingency; behavior controlled by a rule; enables human behavior to come under the indirect control of temporally remote or improbable but potentially significant consequences. Often used in contrast to contingency-shaped behavior, a term used to indicate behavior selected and maintained by controlled, temporally close consequences |
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Contingency-Shaped Behavior |
When a behavior is directly controlled by a contingency, NOT rules. |
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Is the behavior contingency-shaped or the result of rules? |
5 ways to know if a behavior is the result of a rule (rather than reinforcement) - there is not an immediate consequence for the response - Response-Consequence delay > (greater) than 60 seconds - We see the behavior change without reinforcement - A large increase in the frequency of the behavior occurs following one instance of reinforcement - No consequence for the behavior exists (including no automatic reinforcement) but the rule exists |
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Motivating Operation (MO) |
Describes an environmental variable that - alters (increases or decreases) the reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus - alters (increases or decreases) the current frequency of all behavior that has been reinforced by that stimulus |
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What are the 2 types of MO's?
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Establishing operation Abolishing operation |
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Establishing Operation |
A type of MO that INCREASES the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer and makes something MORE desirable to you 2 Types: - Value-Altering Effect - Behavior-Altering Effect |
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Value-Altering Effect (in Establishing Operation) |
An increase in the current reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus; makes that thing you want super VALUABLE in the moment |
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Behavior-Altering Effect (in Establishing Operation) |
An increase in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same MO; Makes your BEHAVIOR ALTER so that you go get that thing you want in the moment |
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Abolishing Operation |
An MO that DECREASES the effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcer; Makes something LESS desirable to you 2 types: - Value-Altering Effect - Behavior-Altering Effect |
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Value-Altering Effect (in Abolishing Operation)
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A decrease in the current reinforcing effectiveness of a stimulus; makes the thing you want LESS valuable in the moment |
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Behavior-Altering Effect (in Abolishing Operation) |
A decrease in the current frequency of behavior that has been reinforced by the stimulus that is altered in effectiveness by the same MO; Makes your BEHAVIOR ALTER in that you do not try to go get that thing you want in the moment |
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Function-Altering Effects |
Refers to how the future behavior of a person changes because of the MO they are experiencing in the moment. Consequent variables that alter the future frequency of whatever behavior immediately preceded those consequences. The MO the person experiences in the moment functions as an SP to cause a decrease in the future frequency of the particular type of behavior that immediately preceded that instance of whatever discomfort the person is experiencing |
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What is the difference between behavior-altering effects and function-altering effects of an MO? |
Behavior-Altering Effects: - CURRENT MOMENT - Changes a person's behavior in the current moment - MOs and SDs are antecedent variables that have behavior altering effects. These can evoke or abate responses; they do not alter consequences at all Function-Altering Effects: - FUTURE - Changes a person's behavior in the future - Consequent variables: reinforcers, punishers, extinction - Consequent variables alter the future frequency of whatever behavior immediately preceded them |
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Unconditoned Motivating Operations (UMOs) |
For all organisms, there are events, operations, and stimulus conditions with value-altering motivating effects that are UNLEARNED |
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What are the 9 main unconditioned motivating operations for humans? |
- Food deprivation - Water deprivation - Sleep deprivation - Activity deprivation - Oxygen deprivation - Sex deprivation - Becoming too warm - Becoming too cold - Increase in pain |
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Conditioned Motivating Operations (CMOs) |
A LEARNED relation between the nature and value of an antecedent stimulus and the nature of a response |
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Motivating Stimuli and 3 sub-types of MOs |
Contingencies that produce an evocative relation similar to that of an MO: When a response becomes important, but... the response cannot occur UNLESS some stimulus change enables it |
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Motivating Stimulus |
is a stimulus that must be present to allow the person to engage in the behavior that is primed for reinforcement. Its absence evokes seeking out that stimulus. |
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Surrogate MO |
A stimulus that has acquired its effectiveness by accompanying some other MO and has come to have the same value-altering and behavior-altering effects as the MO that it has accompanied. Alters the value of consequences that are under the control of an MO with which it has been paired. A pairing process needs to take place here with another MO. |
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Reflexive MO |
A condition or object that acquires its effectiveness as an MO by PRECEDING a situation that either is worsening or is improving. Since the condition or object comes before the aversive event, escape or avoidance would now be highly reinforcing to the person. They signal to us that aversive events may be occurring soon! |
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Transitive MO |
An environmental variable that establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing effectiveness of another stimulus and thereby evokes (or abates) the behavior that has been reinforced by that other stimulus. UMO effects (those of food deprivation) transfer to the conditional reinforcers (eating utensils) and when they do, they are called TRANSITIVE CONDITIONAL MOs. This is the same thing as the Motivating Simulus. YOU CANNOT ACCESS TO THE STIMULUS YOU WANT UNTIL YOU SOLVE THE PROBLEM (locked fridge) |
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Discrimination VS. Generalization
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Discrimination: Occurs when a limited spectrum of stimuli occasion a response. Narrow stimulus control. VS. Generalization: Occurs when a large spectrum of stimuli occasion certain responses. Generalization is a critical element as to why the human species has survived and thrived |
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What are the 2 types of generalization?
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Stimulus Generalization Response Generalization |
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Stimulus Generalization |
Responding to antecedent stimuli sharing certain aspects of the original SD; a broadening of the spectrum of stimuli that occasion certain responses. The individual responds to something in the same way that resembles the original thing from which they learned. |
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How do you program for stimulus generalization? |
- Sometimes you may want to teach a person stimulus generalization skills they may be lacking - You want the person to respond in the same way to similar, but not identical stimuli |
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Over Generalization |
Emitting a response appropriate to some contexts in an inappropriate context. An inappropriate generalization. |
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Response Generalization |
How we are able to shape new behavior. The extent to which an individual exhibits novice responses that are functionally equivalent to the trained target response. The effects of intervention are expanded from a targeted response to a similar non-targeted behavior. |
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How do I know if the answer is response or stimulus generalization? |
By asking if the form of the response/ behavior change in the example |
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Did the form of the response/ behavior change in the example? |
Yes = Response Generalization/ Induction No = Stimulus Generalization |
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How do you plan for generalization? |
- Select target behaviors that will meet with natural contingencies of reinforcement - Specify all desired variations of the behavior and the situations in which it should (and should not) occur after instruction ended |
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Select target behaviors that will meet with natural contingencies of reinforcement |
- Behavior generalization must be functional for the individual - Follow the relevance-of-behavior rule |
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Relevance-of-Behavior Rule |
Only choose behaviors that generate reinforcers after intervention ceases |
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What are the 2 types of contingencies? |
- Naturally Existing Contingency - Contrived Contingency |
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Naturally Existing Contingency |
Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) that operates independent of your efforts in the generalization setting |
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Contrived Contingency |
Any contingency of reinforcement (or punishment) designed by you to achieve acquisition, maintenance, and/or generalization of a behavior change |
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Specify All Desired Variations of the Behavior and the Situations in Which it Should (and Should Not) Occur After Instruction Ended |
- List all behaviors that need to be changed - List all situations in which the behavior should/ should not occur - Do this in the beginning of your PLANNING stage |
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7 Strategies to Promote Generalization |
1. Common Stimuli (Program Common Stimuli)
2. Loosely Train (Train Loosely) 3. Exemplars 4. Mediation 5. Indiscriminable Contingency 6. Negative Teaching Examples 7. General Case Analysis |
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Common Stimuli (Program Common Stimuli) |
- The likelihood that the correct response will be occasioned in the generalization setting is increased if there is a lot of similarity between the instruction setting and generalization setting - The process of programming common stimuli involves ensuring the same SDs exist in both the instructional and generalization setting |
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Loosely Train (Train Loosely) |
- Expanding heterogeneity of SDs - Noncritical elements of the teaching setting are altered in arbitrary ways - This decreases the likelihood that the individual too narrowly discriminates some noncritical stimulus and that noncritical stimulus acquires exclusive control over the target response Methods to train loosely: teach upstairs in the home one day and downstairs a different day, teach while wearing your hair in a ponytail one day and wearing your hair down a different day, etc. |
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Exemplars (teach sufficient examples; multiple exemplar training) |
- The more examples utilized when teaching, the better. - Provide the individual opportunities to respond correctly to multiple examples of antecedent stimuli - Provide the individual with multiple response examples |
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Mediation |
-Instruct others who will help maintain and generalize newly acquired behaviors - It is your ethical responsibility to collaborate with others to maintain the client's progress after your services terminate - Cooperating with other professionals in order to serve your clients effectively and appropriately is outlined in the professional and ethical compliance code for behavior analysts |
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Indiscriminable Contingencies |
A contingency in which an individual is NOT able to DISCRIMINATE when his/her responses will be reinforced, thus, behaviors continue at a high rate because he/she does not known when his/her next response will produce reinforcement. Making the contingencies unclear in the generalization setting |
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Negative Teaching Examples |
Instructing individuals regarding settings, times, and conditions in which is it NOT appropriate to display a certain behavior; "Don't do it" exemplars strengthen discrimination skills |
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General Case Analysis |
Ensuring that you are teaching all the different stimulus variations and response variations the individual may encounter in the generalization, post-intervention environment; general case strategy helps the individual to learn the similarities of stimuli within a stimulus class and the differences of stimuli within that same stimulus class |
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Terminating Successful Interventions |
- One must systematically terminate successful interventions - One should assess how intricate the intervention is, how quickly did the intervention produce the desired change for the individual, and the availability of natural contingencies of reinforcement for the newly acquired skill - From the beginning, attempt to reduce the need to generalize - Prior to, during, and following intervention, probe for generalization - Mediators should have responsibility in the generalization process |
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Maintenance |
- Following the removal of an intervention, the extent to which a particular response remains in the individual's repertoire over time - A history of intermittent reinforcement tends to promote persistence under extinction. Meaning, when the target behavior is no longer yielding contingent reinforcement, the behavior will still maintain due to its intermittent reinforcement |
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How do you program for maintenance? |
- Use intermittent/ variable reinforcement with your client because this means behavior - Think IV and VR schedules of reinforcement |
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Verbal Behavior |
Skinner created verbal behavior Book "verbal Behavior" published in 1957 |
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Private Events
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- Events taking place inside the skin - Thoughts and feelings - Private events are behavior too! - Private events are accessible only to one individual, not to 2 or more individuals |
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Technical Definition of Verbal Behavior |
- Behavior that is reinforced through the mediation of another person's behavior - Communication that helps individuals get what they desire and avoid what is undesirable to them - Any response form can be verbal - Verbal behavior include vocal and non-vocal behaviors - Involves social interaction between the speaker and listener |
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Speaker |
Gains access to reinforcement and controls their environment though the behavior of the listener. Skinner's verbal behavior is mainly concerned with the behavior of the speaker |
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Listener |
Must learn how to reinforce the speaker's verbal behavior (respond to words and interact with the speaker) |
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Form VS. Function of Verbal Behavior/ Language |
Form: Formal properties of language involve the topography VS. Function: Effects of the response |
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Verbal Operant |
The unit of analysis in verbal behavior MO/ SD -> Response -> Consequence |
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Skinner's 6 Types of Elementary Verbal Operants |
Echoic Mand Intraverbal Tact Textual Transcription |
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What is the acronym for the 6 types of verbal operants? |
EMITTT |
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Echoic |
A type of verbal operant that occurs when the speaker repeats the verbal behavior of another speaker. Repeating/ Echoing/ Verbally Imitating. The echoic operant is controlled by the Verbal Discriminative Stimulus. This means whatever the speaker said controls what the listener is going to say. Speaker says, "Eho" then the listener says, "Echo". The ability to echo is essential for identifying objects and actions. Echoic behavior produces Generalized Conditioned Reinforcement (GCSR). The verbal SD have 2 things in common with the response: - Point-to-point correspondence - Formal similarity |
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Point-to-Point Correspondence |
When the beginning, middle, and end of the verbal stimulus match the beginning, middle, and end of the response |
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Formal Similarity
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When the controlling antecedent stimulus and the response share the same sense mode and physically look exactly the same |
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Echoic Training |
Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of verbal SDs that have point-to-point correspondence and formal similarity with the response. - Goal is to enable the speaker to repeat the teacher's sounds, generally the end goal is to transfer the response form to other, more advanced verbal operants |
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Mand |
- A type of verbal operant in which the speaker asks for what he/she needs or wants - Wants Controlled by MOs (not SDs) - Mands are the first verbal operants acquired by humans |
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Mand Training |
- Bringing verbal responses under the functional control of MOs - First verbal operant to teach a person! - Because it is the first one we acquire as human being - When a person learns to mand, he/she will learn the amazing power of language and continue language development in the future! |
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Where to Start Mand Training? |
- Finds out what motivates a person, an MO needs to be in effect at the time of training - When is that motivating strong? - Can you capture or contrive the motivation to teach a mand? - Make a list of potential motivators and the related reinforcers - Select the first few words to teach |
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For beginning mands, choose words:
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- That are related to strong motivation for each item you teach your client - You can control access to - That can be available for a short period of time initially - That are easy to deliver and/or remove - That are consistently strong - The client prefers and not what the adult prefers - Involving a response form already in the client's repertoire |
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Higher-level mands to teach/ Complex mands |
- Manding for attention - Manding people do things for you - Manding for information - Using mands with adjectives/ prepositions - Increase the length of mands |
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What are the two types of mands?
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Superstitious Mand Magical Mand |
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Superstitious Mand |
An extended mand in which reinforcement sometime occurs incidentally |
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Magical Mand |
- An extended mand in which the reinforcement has NEVER occurred in the past - WISHING |
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Intraverbal |
- Verbal operant in which the speaker deferentially responds to other people - ANSWERING A QUESTION - The intraverbal operant occurs when a VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS evokes a verbal response that does NOT have point-to-point correspondence with the verbal stimulus - Allows a person to talk about and think about things that are not physically present -The intraverbal produces Generalized Conditioned Reinforcement (GCR) |
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Intraverbal Training |
Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of verbal SDs that lack point-to-point correspondence with the response |
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Intraverbal Prerequisites |
The individual has acquired 50 mands and tacts |
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How to teach intraverbal behavior |
- By using prompting, fading, and chaining - Focus on what interests the learner and manipulate the EOs - Teach in the natural environment as much as possible - Continue teaching new mands and tacts as you teach intraverbals |
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For Beginning Intraverbals |
- Begin with fill in the blank activities by using favorite songs or characters - Teaching the client to give his/ her name, gender, etc. - Use object and animal sounds - Use common associations - WH questions |
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Intraverbals should be taught systematically |
- When teaching intraverbals, doing so in the natural environment fosters generalization - Short sessions (1-15 min) - Training on the floor, at a table, playground, etc. |
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Tact |
- Tact is a type of verbal operant in which the speaker names things and actions that the speaker has direct contact with through any of the sense modes - Labeling the environment - Verbal response in the presence of the thing tacted - Tact are controlled by a NONVERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS - Produces GENERALIZED CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT (GCSR) |
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Tact Training |
Involves bringing verbal responses under the functional control of nonverbal SDs |
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Tact Prerequisites |
- Echoics - Some labeling of vocabulary - 5-10 mands that occur without echoic prompts |
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How to Teach Tacts |
Teaching tacts is similar to teaching mands but the form of verbal stimuli changes from, "what do you want?" to "what is that?" or "what do you see?" |
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Pure Tacts |
Your ultimate goal is that a person can tact without anything in place but the non-verbal SD |
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For beginning tacts, choose words |
- That were used during mand training - That are easy to present and manage during teaching sessions |
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Tacts should be taught systematically |
1. Teach with mand component 2. Teach without mand component |
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Tact Extensions |
- There is not one name for one thing; there are many ways to describe the same thing - A new stimulus being similar to another known stimulus may evoke a response like the original stimulus - The distinction is based on the degree to which a novel stimulus shares features with the original stimulus |
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What are the 4 types of tact extensions |
1. Solistic Extension 2. Metaphorical Extension 3. Metonymical Extension 4. Generic Extension |
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Solistic Extension
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- Poor use of language - Substandard verbal behavior; slangs |
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Metaphorical Extension |
- Metaphors - The novel stimulus shares some but not all of the features associated with the original stimulus |
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Metonymical Extension |
Verbal responses to novel stimuli that share NONE of the relevant features of the original stimulus, but some irrelevant but related feature has acquired stimulus control |
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Generic Extension |
- The novel stimulus shares all of the relevant or defining features of the original stimulus - This is the same thing as stimulus generalization |
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Textual |
- Reading, without any implications that the reader understands what is being read - Reading written words - Actually understanding what one is reading involves other verbal and non-verbal operants, such as intraverbal behavior and receptive language - The textual operant occurs when a VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS has point-to-point correspondence, but no formal similarity between the stimulus and the response - Like all verbal operants except the mand, the textual produces GENERALIZED CONDITIONED REINFORCEMENT (GCSR) |
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Transcription |
- Writing and spelling words spoken to you - TAKING DICTATION - The transcription operant occurs when a spoken VERBAL DISCRIMINATIVE STIMULUS controls a written, typed, or finger-spelled response - There is a point-to-point correspondence between the stimulus and the response product, but no formal similarity |
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DUPLIC and CODIC |
- More recent additions regarding Skinner's elementary verbal operants - Jack Michcael (1982 article) created these 2 new categories |
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CODIC |
3 defining features 1. Verbal SD 2. Point-to-point correspondence 3. No formal similarity |
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What are Skinner's Elementary Verbal Operants that are Duplics?
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- Echoic: with echoic, the stimulus is auditory Why is this a duplic? - An echoic is controlled by a verbal SD - An echoic has formal similarity - Imitating someone else's signs Why is this a duplic? - The person's signs are the verbal SDs - There is formal similarity here in that the signs the person imitates are in the same sense mode as the other person presenting the signs |
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Listener Training |
- Skinner's verbal behavior mainly focuses on speaker behavior, NOT listener behavior because what is most often described as listener behavior is more correctly classified as speaker behavior - Often the speaker and listener reside in the same skin - A verbal episode requires a speaker and listener - The role of the listener and what you need to teach them to do- the listener plays the role as a mediator of reinforcement for the speaker's behavior the listener also acts as an SD for the speaker's behavior |
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Autoclitic |
- Verbal behavior about one's own verbal behavior - A secondary verbal operant in which some aspect of a speaker's own verbal behavior function as an SD or an MO for additional speaker verbal behavior - A form of verbal behavior that modifies other forms of verbal behavior - Effects are very RAPID and usually occur in the emission of a SINGLE SENTENCE composed of 2 levels of responding |
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Schedules of Reinforcement |
- A rule that describes a contingency of reinforcement - The environmental arrangements that determine conditions by which behaviors will be reinforced |
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Continuous Reinforcement (CRF) |
- Provides reinforcement for every occurrence of the target behavior - Utilized for strengthening novel behaviors when teaching is first initiated for a new skill that is being acquired |
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Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (INT) |
- Some, but not all, occurrences of the behavior are reinforced - Used for maintaining behaviors that have already been established - Helps to fade from artificial to natural reinforcement |
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What are the 4 basic Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement? |
Fixed Ratio Variable Ratio Fixed Interval Variable Ratio |
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Fixed Ratio (FR)
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- Fixed = Constant, set criteria - Ratio = A certain number of occurrences of the behavior have to occur before 1 response produces reinforcement |
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Pattern of Responding Produced by FR Schedules |
- Individual completes required responses with little hesitation - Post-reinforcement pause follows reinforcement - The size of the ratio influences the duration of the post-reinforcement pause - Large Ratio = Long Pauses - Short Ratio = Short Pauses |
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Post-Reinforcement Pause |
- When the individual does not respond for certain time following reinforcement |
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Rate of Response Produced by FR Schedules
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- FR schedules often produce high rate of response because quick responding produces a faster rate of reinforcement - The larger the ratio requirement, the higher the rate of response |
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Variable Ratio (VR)
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The strongest basic schedule of intermittent reinforcement - Variable = changing, variable criteria; average; mean of responses - Ratio = A number of occurrences of the target behavior have to occur before 1 response produces reinforcement |
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Pattern of Responding Produced by VR Schedules |
- Produce consistent, steady rates of response - Do NOT produce a post-reinforcement pause. Responding remains steady because the next response may produce reinforcement |
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Rate of Response Produced by VR Schedules |
- Fast rate of response - The larger the ratio requirement, the faster the rate of response |
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Fixed Interval |
One of the BASIC schedules of intermittent schedules of reinforcement - Fixed = Constant, set criteria - Interval = Specific amount of time elapses before a single correct response produces reinforcement |
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Patterns of Responding Produced by FI Scheudles |
- Post-reinforcement pause also evident in this schedule, but only during the early part of the interval - At the end of the interval, there is a FI SCALLOP, which is a gradually accelerating rate of response toward the end of the interval. Called this because of the rounded curves in the graph and it resembles scallops |
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Rate of Response Produced by FI Schedules |
- Slow-to-moderate - The larger the fixed interval requirement, the longer the post-reinforcement pause |
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Variable Interval |
- One of the BASIC schedules of intermittent reinforcement - Variable = Changing, variable criteria; AVERAGE; MEAN of responses - Interval = Specific amount of time elapses before a single correct response produces reinforcement |
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Pattern of Responding Produced by VI Schedules |
- Constant, stable rate of response - Few hesitations between responses |
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Rate of Response Produced by VI Schedules |
- Low-to-moderate rate of response - The larger the average interval, the lower the overall rate of response |
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Fixed Ratio VS. Fixed Interval |
- Both produce post-reinforcement pauses - Variable schedules do NOT PRODUCE POST-REINFORCEMENT |
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Thinning Intermittent Reinforcement (INT) |
- Gradually increasing the response ratio or the duration of the time interval |
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Ratio Strain |
- A result of ABRUPT increases in ratio requirements when moving from denser to thinner reinforcement schedules - Common behavioral characteristics are avoidance, aggression, etc. |
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How Can Ration Strain be Reduced? |
When you see ratio strain, you should reduce the ratio requirements |
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Limited Hold |
- A restriction placed on an interval schedule requiring that to be eligible for reinforcement, the primed response must occur within a specified span of time following that interval - A LH can be imposed on any type of schedule - To speed up the response rate of your client, use an LH |
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3 Variations of Basic Intermittent (INT) Schedules of Reinforcement |
- Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH) - Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRD) - Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL) |
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Variations of Basic Intermittent (INT) Schedules of differential reinforcement of rates of responding |
- Use when the challenging behavior has to do with rates of response- Differential reinforcement helps with this problem - It is a variation of RATIO schedules, because reinforcement is contingent upon behaviors occurring at higher or lower rates than a specified criterion |
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Differential Reinforcement of High Rates of Responding (DRH) |
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement for emitting behaviors that are at or above a pre-established rate - Helps to increase to INCREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too infrequently |
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Differential Reinforcement of Diminishing Rates of Responding (DRO) |
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement when the number of responses in a specified time period is less than, or equal to, a prescribed limit - Helps to DECREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY |
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Differential Reinforcement of Low Rates of Responding (DRL) |
- A schedule of reinforcement that provides reinforcement only if the behavior occurs following a specific period of time during which it did not occur since the last time it occurred
- An INTER-RESPONSE TIME (IRT) identifies the duration of time that occurs between 2 responses - DRL helps to DECREASE BEHAVIOR that the individual displays too frequently, but NOT TO ELIMINATE IT ENTIRELY |
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IRT and Rate of Response are functionally related |
- The longer the IRT, the lower the overall rate of responding - The shorter the IRT, the higher the overall rate or responding - Thus, by increasing the IRT, you are lowering the rate of responding. That is what the DRL is all about |
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Progressive Schedules of Reinforcement |
- Variation on basic INT schedules of reinforcement - Systematically thins each successive reinforcement opportunity independent of the participant's behavior - There is a direct relation between how hard an organism will work for access to an object, as indexed by the largest ratio completed under a progressive schedule (which is the breaking point) and the potency of the reinforcer |
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Using Progressive Schedules of Reinforcer Assessment |
An assessment procedure for identifying reinforcers that will maintain treatment effects across increasing schedule requirements. During the session, progressive schedules are typically thinned to the "breaking point," when the participant stops responding. Comparing the breaking point corresponding number of responses associated with each reinforcer can identify relative reinforcement effects
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Using Progressive Schedules for Intervention |
- Systematically increasing the requirements for reinforcement - May be used to measure what is commonly referred to as the strength, potency, or effectiveness of scheduled reinforcers |
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Compound Schedules of Reinforcement |
Combination of: - Continuous reinforcement (CRF) - 4 intermittent schedules of reinforcement (FR, VR, FI, VI) - Differential reinforcement of various rates of responding (DRH, DRD, DRL) - Extinction (EXT) |
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7 Compound Schedules of Reinforcement |
1. Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement (conc) 2. Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement (mult) 3. Chained Schedules of Reinforcement (chain) 4. Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement (mix) 5. Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement (tand) 6. Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement (alt) 7. Conjunctive Schedules of Reinforcement (conj) |
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Concurrent Schedules of Reinforcement |
- Occurs when: - 2 or more contingencies of reinforcement - operate independently and simultaneously - for 2 or more behaviors - We make choices among concurrently available events every day - Choice Making - Matching law is part of this schedule |
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Matching Law |
A description of a phenomenon according to which organisms MATCH their responses according to the proportion of payoff during CHOICE situations |
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Matching Law States |
Given 2 concurrently available response alternatives, individuals will distribute their behavior in the same proportion that reinforcers are distributed among those alternatives |
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Translation of Matching Law |
Given 2 concurrently available behaviors, we will choose to engage in the behavior that has the highest rate or reinforcement |
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Formula of Matching Law |
B1 = R1 B1 + B2 R1 + R2 B = Rate of behaviors/responses at either alternative B1 and B2 R = Rate of reinforcement for B1 and B2 |
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Multiple Schedules of Reinforcement
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- Presents 2 or more basic schedules of reinforcement in an alternating, usually random, sequence for only 1 or more behaviors - The basic schedules within the multiple within the multiple schedule occur successively and independently - An SD is correlated with each basic schedule and is present as long as the schedule is in effect |
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Chained Schedules of Reinforcement |
Has 2 or more basic schedule requirements that occur successively and has an SD correlated with each independent schedule with 1 or more behaviors |
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3 Important Elements of a Chained Schedule of Reinforcement |
1. Basic schedules occur in a specific order (not in a random order as in multiple schedules) 2. The behavior may be the same for all elements of the chain or different behaviors may be required for different elements in the chain 3. Conditioned reinforcement for the 1st behavior in the chain is the presentation of the 2nd element and so on |
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Mixed Schedules of Reinforcement
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- Identical to multiple schedules, except the mixed schedule has NO SD correlated with the independent schedules - NOTE: The only difference between the mixed and multiple schedule is the presentation of the SDs. It is present in the multiple, but not present in the mixed |
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Tandem Schedules of Reinforcement |
- Similar to the chained schedule does not use an SD - Note: The only difference between the tandem and chained schedule is the presentation of the SDs. It is present in the chained, but not present in the tandem |
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Alternative Schedules of Reinforcement
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Advantages: - Clear demonstration of variables that relate to problem behavior - Standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated - Enables development of effective reinforcement-based treatment Disadvantages: - May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior - May result in the behavior acquiring new functions - Acceptability is low - Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors - If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify idiosyncratic variables related to problem behaviors - Requires time, effort, and professional expertise |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Analysis |
Provides reinforcement when the completion of the response requirements for BOTH a ratio and interval schedule have been met. Both schedule |
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Adjunctive Behaviors |
- Behaviors that are brought about by schedules of reinforcement during times when reinforcement is unlikely to be delivered - Time-filling or interim behaviors |
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Schedules of Punishment |
- All of the information provided above on how much to schedule reinforcement also relates to how to schedule punishment - NOTE: this is the EXACT SAME thing that happens with reinforcement |
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Why should you recommend reinforcement rather than punishment? |
If punishment procedures are necessary, you always include reinforcement procedures for alternative behavior in the program and you should always recommend the least restrictive procedures likely to be effective, as outlined in the Professional & Ethical Compliance Code for the Behavior Analysts |
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4 Phases of Intervention |
1. Assessment 2. Planning 3. Implementation 4. Evaluation |
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What is the acronym for the 4 phases of intervention?
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A PIE |
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Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) |
- A systematic method for obtaining information about the FUNCTION challenging behaviors serve for an individual - Allows us to make empirically-based hypotheses for WHY behaviors occur - Involves a variety of methods including direct observations, interviews, checklists, and tests to identify targets for behavior change - Discovers resources, assets, significant others, competing contingencies, maintenance and generalization factors, and potential reinforcers and/or punishers that may be included in intervention plans |
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Purpose of Functional Behavioral Assessment (FBA) |
- Identifies and defines targets for behavior change
- Guides us to create effective and positive interventions |
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How do you ethically prepare for an FBA? |
- You have to choose the RIGHT BEHAVIORS for assessment, so you need to know what is SOCIALLY SIGNIFICANT and be able to prioritize behaviors - You also need to be skilled at conducting assessments - You should accept as clients only those individuals or entities whose behavior problems or requested service are commensurate with your education, training, and experience, as outlined in the Professional and Ehtical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts |
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What is the shape of the FBA? |
FUNNEL because it has a broad scope that narrows focus as you conduct the assessment process |
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What are the 5 phases of the FBA? |
1. Screening and general deposition 2. Defining and quantifying problems or desired achievement criteria 3. Pinpointing target behaviors to be treated 4. Monitoring progress 5. Following-up |
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What are the pre-assessment considerations for the functional behavioral assessment? |
- Before you conduct an assessment, you must ask this critical questions: - who has the authority, permission, resources, and skills to complete an assessment and intervene with the behavior? If do not have any one of these answers, you cannot do the assessment - you should obtain the client's or client-surrogate's approval in writing of the behavior assessment procedures before implementing them, as outlined in the Professional and Ethical Compliance Code for Behavior Analysts |
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Indirect VS. Direct Assessment Measures (FBA) |
Indirect Measures: - Data obtained from recollections, reconstructions, or subjective ratings of events - Interviews - Checklists VS. Direct Measures: - Provide information about a person's behavior as it occurs - Preferred choice over indirect measures - Tests - Direct Observations |
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When Using Indirect Measures in the FBA watch out because: |
- Are not as reliable as direct descriptive methods - Should only be used as a supplement to other FBA methods - Starts the hypotheses developmental process |
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4 ways to acquire information for the FBA |
1. Checklists (behavior checklist) 2. Observation (direct observation) 3. Interviews (structured behavioral interviews) 4. Tests (standardized tests) |
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What is the acronym for the 4 ways to acquire information for the FBA?
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COIT: Checklists (behavior checklist) Observation (direct observation) Interviews (structured behavioral interviews) Tests (standardized tests) |
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Checklists (Behavior Checklists) in the FBA |
- Likert Scales - Alone or with interview and rating scales - Asks about antecedents and consequences of the target behaviors |
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Observation (Direct Observation) in the FBA |
- Direct and repeated in the natural environment - Identifies potential target behaviors - Preferred method! |
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Anecdotal observation (ABC Recording) in the FBA |
Basic form of direct observation - Temporally sequenced description of behavior patterns - Requires total attention of observer for at least 20-30 minutes continuously - Not good options for classroom teacher because they have other things to do and cannot commit full attention to data - Do NOT write interpretations; only what is observable and measurable - Carry out for several days so reactivity effects can decrease |
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Interviews (Structured Behavioral Interviews) |
First step in identifying list of behaviors, which can be used later in direct observation |
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What 2 interview sources do you use in the FBA?
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1. The Individual - Ask "what," "when" questions DO NOT ASK "why" - Identify primary concerns of the individual - You can give the individual questionnaires or have them record self-monitoring data 2. Significant Others - Sometimes one cannot interview the individual directly or one needs information from important others (parents etc.) - Interviewing significant others is a great way to assess the participation of significant others in your intervention plan |
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Tests (Standardized Tests) in the FBA |
- Many published standardized tests exist - Consistent administration is key: each time a standardized test is administered, the same questions and tasks are presented in a specified way and the same scoring criteria and procedures are used - Most standardized tests do NOT work well with functional behavior assessments because results are not translated directly into target behaviors |
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Other things that need to done with the FBA |
- Review records and data at the outset of the case - Consider biological/Medical variables that may be affecting the client - Conduct a preliminary assessment of the client in order to identify the referral problem - Explain behavioral concepts using non-technical language - Describe and explain behavior, including private events, in behavior-analytic (non-mentalistic) terms - Provide behavior analytic services in collaboration with others who support and/or provide services to one's clients - Select intervention strategies based on environmental and resource constraints - Identify and make environmental changes that reduce the need for behavior analysis services |
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Ecological Assessment |
- A great deal of information is gathered about the individual and the various settings in which that individual lives and works - Included is information about physiological conditions, physical settings, interactions with others, home environments, etc. - Creates a lot of DESCRIPTIVE data - Costly in terms of time, money, etc. - One should know when it is appropriate to use |
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Reactivity |
- The effects of the assessment process on the behavior of the individual being assessed - Reactivity most likely when observation methods are obtrusive - Self-monitoring = most obtrusive data collection method - Reactive effects are usually temporary |
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How do you reduce reactivity? |
- Be as unobtrusive as possible - Repeat observations until reactive effects subside - Take effects into account when interpreting your data |
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Habilitation |
- Assesses meaningfulness of change - Is this change really useful to the client? - Habilitation occurs when a person's repertoire has been changed such that short-term and long-term reinforcers are maximized and short-term and long-term punishers are minimized - You want to assess if the target behaviors you might potentially change in a client will be habilitative for your client. In order to do so, ask yourself the 10 questions |
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What are the 10 questions you ask yourself when evaluating the habilitation/social significance of target behaviors? |
1. Is this behavior likely to produce reinforcement in the client's natural environment after intervention ends? 2. Is this behavior a prerequisite for a more complex functional skill? 3. Will this behavior increase the client's access to environments? - "access behaviors" a means of producing indirect benefits to clients 4. will changing this behavior predispose others to interact with the client in a more supportive manner? 5. Is this behavior a pivotal behavior or a behavioral cusp? 6. Is this an age-appropriate behavior? 7. If this behavior is to be reduced/eliminated from the client's repertoire, has an adaptive and functional behavior been selected to replace it? - "constructional approach" 8. Does this behavior represent the actual goal, or is it only indirectly related? 9. Is this "just talk," or is it the real behavior of interest? 10. If the goal of itself is not a specific behavior, will this behavior help achieve it? |
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Normalization |
- The belief that people with disabilities should, to the maximum extent possible, be physically and socially integrated into mainstream society regardless of the degree or type of disability - The use of progressively more typical settings and procedures to establish personal behavior which are as culturally normal as possible |
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Behavior Cusps |
- A behavior that has sudden and dramatic consequences that extend well beyond the idiosyncratic change itself because it exposes the person to new environments, reinforcers, contingencies, responses, and stimulus control - You should select this as goals for intervention with your clients if possible to make their learning more efficient |
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Pivotal Behaviors |
- A behavior that, when learned, produced corresponding modifications or co-variation in other untrained behaviors - Teaching pivotal behaviors reduces intervention time - Strategy utilized: pivotal response training - PIVOTAL: so critical that once you learn it, it will lead to more complex behaviors |
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What are the similarities between behavioral cusps and pivotal behaviors? |
Both are behaviors you want to teach first to clients because they are are upon which other behaviors can be built |
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What are the differences between behavioral cusps and pivotal behaviors?
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- Behavior cusps are more about the person accessing new contingencies and environments (not behaviors) - Pivotal behaviors are more about the person experiencing corresponding changes in other untrained behaviors (not contingencies and environments) When you are creating goals for intervention for your client, you should select behavior cusps and pivotal behaviors to teach them |
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Generative Learning
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- Enhancing comprehension of new material due to previous learning - Achieve generative learning through teaching material to ensure the client is FLUENT with the material and through teaching the client behavior cusps and pivotal behaviors |
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Prioritizing target behaviors |
1. Threat to health or safety of clients or others 2. Frequency: opportunities to use new behavior. Are there a lot of opportunities so that the behavior is maintained in the natural environment/ Occurrence of problem 3. Longevity of problem: Chronic problem should come before the new one 4. Potential for higher rates of reinforcement 5. Relative importance of this target behavior to future skill development and independent functioning 6. Reduction of negative attention fro others 7. Reinforcement for significant others: exercise caution when considering this 8. Likelihood of success: some behaviors are harder to change than others 9. Cost-benefit ratio to change client's behavior: costs include time and effort. Cost should be low and benefit should be high |
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4 functions of problem behaviors |
Sensory Escape Attention Tangible |
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What is the acronym for the 4 functions of behavior?
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SEAT |
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Default Technologies |
- Coercive, punishment-based interventions often selected arbitrarily - Conducting FBAs decreases reliance on default technologies |
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Functional Analysis
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- The only FBA method that allows us to confirm hypotheses regarding functional relations between behaviors and environmental events - Antecedents and consequences are arranged so that their separate effects on behavior can be observed - The "gold standard" of assessment procedures - "Analogs" = the arrangement of variables. Analog conditions allow for better control of variables - Research shows the functional analyses done in natural settings yield same results as those done in simulated settings |
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What are the 2 types of functional analyses? |
Extended Functional Analysis Brief Functional Analysis |
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Extended Functional Analysis |
The type of functional analyses we are explaining here |
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Brief Functional Analysis |
A brief version of the extended functional analyses |
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4 Typical Original Conditions of Functional Analysis |
3 Test Conditions and 1 Control Condition: 1. Contingent Attention 2. Contingent Escape 3. Alone 4. Control: Problem behavior is low in this unstructured condition because reinforcement is freely available and no demands are placed on the person - Each test condition contains an MO and a potential source of reinforcement for behavior - The conditions are presented systematically one at a time and in alternating sequence until a pattern of problem behavior emerges - Sessions are repeated |
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How is functional analysis data interpreted? |
Visually inspecting a graph of the results to see the conditions under which high rates of behavior occurred |
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Play Condition |
This condition tests for automatic reinforcement and serves as a control condition |
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Tangible Condition |
Only use this when you hypothesize access to tangibles to be the function of the behavior |
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Brief Functional Analysis |
- Conditioning a functional analysis in a short period of time
- Systematically manipulating environmental variables to trigger the problem behavior and reinforce it when it happens - determines which variable is maintaining the behavior - 4 variables: attention, escape, alone, and play - Each condition is run for 10 minutes - Each condition, except for the alone condition, must include an MO and SD that signal reinforcement is available - Within each condition, you purposely trigger the problem behavior and reinforce it when it occurs to observe if it increases - If that consequence is the function, the behavior will increase - If that consequence is NOT the function, the behavior will not increase or will not occur again at all |
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Functional Analysis |
Advantages: - Clear demonstration of variables that relate to problem behavior - Standard to which all other forms of FBA are evaluated - Enables development of effective reinforcement-based treatment Disadvantages: - May temporarily strengthen the problem behavior - May result in the behavior acquiring new functions - Acceptability is low - Difficult to use for serious, low frequency behaviors - If conducted in contrived settings, may not identify idiosyncratic variables related to problem behaviors - Requires time, effort, and professional expertise |
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Direct Descriptive FBA |
Direct observation of problem behavior and the antecedent and consequent events under naturally occurring conditions |
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What are the 3 data collection methods for descriptive FBA's? |
1. ABC Continuous Recording
2. ABC Narrative Recording 3. Scatter Plot |
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ABC Continuous Recording |
- Record occurrences of targeted problem behaviors and selected environmental events within the natural routine during a specified period of time - All ABC data should be recorded for a minimum of 20-30 minutes |
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Advantages of ABC Continuous Recording
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- Uses precise measures - Provides useful contextual information and correlations regarding environmental events and the problem behavior, which can provide useful information for later functional analyses - Calculates Conditional Probabilities - Proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior preceded by a specific antecedent - Proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior followed by a specific consequence - Can be misleading |
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Disadvantages of ABC Continuous Recording |
- Often, antecedents and consequences do not reliably precede and follow problem behavior, making correlations difficult to detect |
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Conditional Probability |
- The probability that a target behavior will occur in a specific circumstance - Taken from ABC data - Looks at the proportion of the occurrence of problem behavior: - Preceded by a specific antecedent and/or - Followed by a specific consequence - The closer the conditional probability is to 1.0, the more convincing your hypothesis becomes that the antecedent that preceded it and consequence that followed it is functionally related to the target behavior - The farther the conditional probability is from 1.0, the less convincing your hypothesis becomes that the antecedent that preceded it and consequence that followed it is functionally related to the target behavior - Conditional probability data is reported in decimal form, not percentages - Can be misleading |
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What is the formula for Conditional Probability? |
# of Behaviors Preceded by a Specific Antecedent and/ or Followed by a Specific Consequence _______________________________________________ Total # of behaviors |
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ABC Narrative Recording |
- Data are collected only when behaviors of interest are observed - Recording is open ended - Difficult to discriminate which environmental events actual occasion the problem behavior |
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Advantages of ABC Narrative Recording |
- Less time-consuming than continuous recording |
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Disadvantages of ABC Narrative Recording |
- Utility in identifying behavioral function NOT established - May yield false positives because data are collected only when behavior occurs - The same antecedent and consequent events may be present when problem behavior is absent - Reliability may be low - Observers may report "inferred states" rather than events |
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Scatter Plot |
- Procedure for recording the extent to which a target behavior occurs more often at particular times than others - Divide day into blocks of time - For each time period, enter a symbol to indicate whether problem behavior occurred a lot, some, or not at all - Analyze for patterns to identify temporal distributions of behavior and events that occur at that time |
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Advantages of Scatter Plot |
- Identifies time periods when the problem behavior occurs - Can be useful for pinpointing periods of the day when more focused ABC assessments can be conducted |
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Disadvantages of Scatter Plot |
- Subjective - Does not determine the function of problem behavior - Does not offer any replacement behaviors |
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Indirect FBA |
- Identifying potential events in the naturla setting that correlate with the challenging behavior by gathering information from others who know the individual displaying the challenging behavior very well via methods, such as RATING SCALES, CHECKLISTS, STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS: - Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS) - Motivation Analysis Rating Scale (MARS) - Problem Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) - Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST) - Questions About Behavioral Function (QABF) |
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Functional Equivalence |
- When you decrease a behavior, you MUST select an ACCEPTABLE ALTERNATIVE BEHAVIOR to be be established or increased for your client - Your intervention must match the function of the behavior - Teaching functional skills is also one of the 6 BASIC CLIENT RIGHTS |
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If your FBA indicates the client is in need of their behavior being: |
- Established - Maintained - Increased - Decreased |
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Established |
When results show your client does not have the target behavior or skill in his/her repertoire, you should teach your client the new behavior or skill |
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Maintained |
After you establish the target behavior or skill in his/her repertoire, you must work on MAINTENANCE (OVER TIME) in the natural environment |
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Increased |
When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too low, then you increase that target behavior to a level that is acceptable |
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Decreased |
When results show the problem is that the rate of the target behavior is too high, then you decrease that target behavior to a level that is acceptable |
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Discrepancy Analysis |
- Tells you if problem behavior is at problematic levels - Helps you to determine the behavioral standard for acceptability |
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Assessment is Ongoing |
- You should continue to monitor how effective your interventions are over time - Functions of challenging behavior are dynamic and change over time - Ongoing evaluation and assessment is also one of the 6 BASIC CLIENT RIGHTS |
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Why is Defining Target Behaviors so Important in ABA? |
Importance of Definition to Researchers: - Definitions are required for replication - Replication is required for research Importance of Definition to Practitioners: - Accurate evaluation requires explicit definition of behavior - Accurate and believable evaluation of effectiveness |
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What are the 3 characteristics of good operational definitions? |
Objective Clear Complete |
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Objective |
Refer only to the observable |
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Clear |
Readable and unambiguous |
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Complete |
Delineates boundaries of a definition (included and excluded) |
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Social Validity
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Is the person's life changed in a positive and meaningful way? Involves in 3 factors: - Social significance of the goals - Social appropriateness of the procedures - Social importance of the effects - Are consumers satisfied with the results of your work? - Even if your data shows your intervention was awesomely effective with the client, if the mediators are dissatisfied with the intervention in some way, they are probably not going to maintain the intervention in the future |
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What are the 2 Procedures for Identifying Effective Reinforcers? |
1. Stimulus Preference Assessment 2. Reinforcer Assessment |
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Stimulus Preference Assessment |
- Identifies stimuli that are likely to function as reinforcers - A variety of procedures used to determine: - Stimuli that a person prefers - The relative preference value of stimuli - The conditions under which those preference values change when task demands, deprivation states, or schedules of reinforcement change |
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What are the 3 Basic Methods of Stimulus Preference Assessment |
1. Asking about stimulus preferences 2. Free-operant observation 3. trial-based methods (can be combined to compare methods) |
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Asking About Stimulus Preferences |
Ask the Target Person - Open-ended questions (orally or written) - Choice format: "which would you work for?" - Ranking objects on a list - If person has limited language, pictures of actual stimuli can be presented. Nods or points can be accepted as making a choice - Not a sure fire system. There are researched discrpeancies between a person claiming something as reinforcing and the item maintaining its reinforcing power Ask Significant Others Offer a Pre-Task Choice - "What do you want to earn for doing the task?" Participant can choose one item from 2-3 items |
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Free Operant Observation |
- Recording what activities a person engages in when they can choose during a period of unrestricted access to numerous activities |
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Contrived Free-Operant Observation |
The practitioner fills the environment with a variety of items that the person may like |
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Naturalistic Free-Operant Observation |
Conducted in the learner's everyday environment as unobtrusively as possible. Observer records how the person allocates his/her time with each activity |
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Trial-Based Methods |
- Stimuli are presented to the learner in a series of trials and the learner's responses to the stimuli are measured as an index of preference - The more a person approaches, touches, or engages with a stimulus, the more likely it is that the stimulus is preferred - Preferred stimuli are sometimes labeled as: - High Preference (HP) - Medium Preference (MP) - Low Preference (LP) |
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What are 3 Ways to Measure a Learner's Behavior |
1. Approach 2. Contact 3. Engagemen |
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Approach |
Any detectable movement toward the stimulus |
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Contact |
Touching or holding the item |
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Engagement |
Total time or percentage of intervals in which the person interacts with the item |
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What are the 3 Types of Trial-Based Methods of Stimulus Preference Assessments? |
1. Paired Stimulus 2. Multiple Stimulus 3. Single Stimulus |
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Paired Stimulus |
- Simultaneous presentation of 2 stimuli - observer records which of the 2 stimuli the learner chooses - Data reflects how many times each stimulus is chosen - Stimuli are ranked in terms of high, medium, or low preference - Sometimes this method outperforms single stimulus presentation in terms of ultimately identifying reinforcers. It is more efficient. - Takes more time because every pair of stimuli must be presented |
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Multiple Stimulus |
- Simultaneous presentation of an array of 3 or more stimuli - Reduces assessment time - 2 Variations of Multiple Stimulus- Multiple Stimuli WITH Replacement and Multiple Stimuli WITHOUT Replacement |
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Multiple Stimuli WITH Replacement |
The item chosen remains in the array and the items not chosen are replaced with new items
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Multiple Stimuli WITHOUT Replacement
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The chosen item is removed from the array, the order or placement of the remaining items is rearranged and the next trial begins |
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Single Stimulus |
- Most basic method for assessing preference - Well suited for individuals who have hard time selecting among 2 or more stimuli - Target stimuli among all sensory systems (visual, auditory, vestibular, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, and multisensory) - Presented one at a time in random order and the person's reaction to each stimulus is recorded - Approach or rejection responses are recorded in terms of occurrence (yes/no), frequency, or duration - After recording, the next item is presented - Items should be presented several times and the order should be varied |
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Guidelines for Selecting and Using Stimulus Preference Assessments |
- Monitor the learner's activities during the time period before the stimulus preference assessment session to be aware of MOs - Use the methods that balance the cost-benefit of brief assessments with more prolonged assessments that may delay reinforcement identification - When time is brief, conduct a brief stimulus preference assessment with fewer items in an array - When possible, combine data from multiple assessment methods and others, free-operant observation, and trial-based methods |
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Reinforcer Assessment |
- A variety of direct, data based methods used to present one or more stimuli contingent on a target response and then measuring the future effects on the rate of responding - Used to determine the relative effects of a given stimulus as reinforcement under different and changing conditions and to assess the comparative effectiveness of multiple stimuli as reinforcers for a given behavior under certain conditions - Puts the potential reinforcers to a direct test by presenting them contingent on occurrences of a behavior and measuring any effects on response rates - The only way to know for sure whether a given stimulus serves as a reinforcer is to present it immediately following the occurrence of the behavior and note its effects on responding |
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Concurrent Schedule Reinforcer Assessment |
- Two or more contingencies of reinforcement operate independently and simultaneously for 2 or more behaviors - Pits 2 stimuli against each other to see which will produce the larger increase in responding when presented as a consequence for responding - Shows the relative effectiveness of high preference (HP) and low preference (LP) stimuli as reinforcers - May be used to determine differences between relative and absolute reinforcement effects of stimuli. - Think MATCHING LAW |
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Multiple Schedule Reinforcer Assessment
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- Consists of presenting 2 or more component schedules of reinforcement for a single response, with only one component schedule in effect at any given time - An SD signals the presence of each component schedule and that stimulus is present as long as the schedule is in effect |
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Progressive-Ratio Schedule Reinforcer Assessment |
- Provides a framework for assessing the relative effectiveness of a stimulus as a reinforcement as response requirements increase - Requirements for reinforcement are increased systematically over time independent of the participant's behavior - The practitioner gradually requires more responses per presentation of the preferred stimulus until a breaking point is reached and the response rate declines |
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Identifying Potential Punishers |
- Just like we identify and assess for reinforcers, we must do the same for punishers - The same issues that affect reinforcement apply to punishment - what is punishing for one person may not be for another - Sometimes hard to determine for people with intellectual disabilities - Punishers are transitory |
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Punisher Assessment |
- Punisher assessments are the SAME as the reinforcer assessments above - Advantages: - The sooner an effective punisher can be identified, the sooner it can be used as treatment for the problem behavior - Informs us of the INTENSITY of the punisher needed to effectively decrease or eliminate the problem behavior. We want to use the smallest intensity of the punisher, but that is still effective |
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How Do We Conduct Punisher Assessments? |
Conducted by measuring negative verbalizations, avoidance movements, and escape attempts associated with each potential punishing stimulus |
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How Do Punisher Assessments Differ From Reinforcer Assessments? |
Different than reinforcer assessments, in which we record data on engagement or duration of contact with each potential reinforcing stimulus |
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What do you use the punisher assessments for? |
The data is used to develop a hypothesis on the relative effectiveness of each stimulus change as a punisher |
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Experimental Control |
When a predictable change in behavior can be reliably produced by the systematic manipulation of some aspect of the individual's environment |
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What are the 4 important elements of behavior? |
- Behavior is Individual - Behavior is Continuous - Behavior is Determined - Behavior variability is Extrinsic to the organism |
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Behavior is Individual |
- Behavior is defined as a person's interaction with the environment
- Groups of people do NOT behave! - Experimental strategy of ABA is based on single-subject methods of analysis; NOT large groups |
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Behavior is Continuous
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- Behavior changes over time - Thus, it requires continuous measurement over time |
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Behavior is Determined |
- The occurrence of any event is determined by the functional relations it holds to other events - Behavior is a natural phenomenon and subject to the same natural laws as other natural as other natural phenomena |
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Behavior variability is Extrinsic to the organism |
Variability is the result of the environment such as: - The IV under investigation - Some uncontrolled aspect of experiment - Uncontrolled factor outside of experiment |
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When we see variability in our data, what should we do? |
- Behavior analysts should attempt to experimentally manipulate factors suspected of causing the variability in the data to look for causal factors - In practice, behavior analysts seek treatment variables robust enough to overcome variabilit |
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6 Components of Experiments in ABA |
1. At least one subject 2. At least one behavior (DV) 3. At least one setting 4. At least one treatment (IV) 5. A measurement system and ongoing analysis of data 6. An experimental design |
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Experimental Question |
- All well-planned experiments begin with this - A brief but specific statement of what the researcher wants to learn from conducting the experiment - Can be in question or statement form: - Question form: what are the effects of the IV on the DV for what population and in what setting? - Statement form: The purpose of the study was the see the effects of the IV on the DV |
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At Least One Subject |
- ABA uses Single- Subject Design - Called this because the subject acts as his/her own control - This means repeated measures of the subject's behavior during each phase of the study provide the basis for comparing experimental variables as they are presented or withdrawn in subsequent conditions - The individual is exposed to each condition several times over the course of a study - ABA studies usually involve more than one subject (4-8 is common) - Each subject's data are graphed separately - ABA does NOT use group comparison designs that are traditionally used in psychology that have a large number of subjects. Group designs mask individual progress |
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At Least One Behavior |
In some studies, more than one DV is measured. Reasons for multiple dependent variables include the following:
- Provide data patterns that can serve as controls for evaluating and replicating the effects of an IV - Assess the presence and the extent of the IV's effects on behaviors other than the response class to which it was directly applied - Determine whether changes in the behavior of a person other than the subject occur during the course of an experiment and if such changes can explain changes in the subject's behavior |
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At Least One Setting
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- Control 2 sets of environmental variables to demonstrate experimental control: 1. IV 2. Extraneous Variables - In labs, we can control environmentals better, but in applied settings of homes, schools etc., it is harder to control the environment - When unplanned variations take place, you must try to wait them out or incorporate them into the design. Repeated measures of behavior tells us whether unplanned environmental changes are of concern |
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At Least One Treatment |
The particular aspect of the environment that the experimenter manipulates to find out whether it affects the subject's behavior |
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A Measurement System and Ongoing Analysis of Data |
- Observation and recording procedures must be conducted in a standardized manner - Standardization involves every aspect of the measurement system - Behaviorists must detect changes in level, trend, and variabilit |
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Experimental Design |
- The particular arrangement of conditions in a study so that meaningful comparisons of the effects of the presence, absence, or different values of the IV can be made |
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Important Rules of Experimental Design |
Change only one variable at a time - If examining a treatment package, ensure that the entire package is presented or withdrawn at the same time. Do not get locked into textbook designs - Select and combine designs that best fit the research questions |
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What are the 2 types of Experimental Designs? |
1. Nonparametric Analysis 2. Parametric Analysis |
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Treatment Package |
Is when multiple IVs are bundled into one program, such as a token economy plus praise plus time-out |
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Nonparametric Analysis |
IV either present or absent during study |
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Parametric Analysis |
The value of the IV is manipulated. Seeks to discover the differential effects of a range of values
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After creating a treatment package, how do you analyze the individual treatments that are part of that package |
- A process called component analysis looks at the effect of each part of the treatment packages - Conduct a component analysis to determine the effective components of an intervention package - You want to keep those effective components going while getting rid of the ineffective components |
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Steady State Responding
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- A pattern of responding that exhibits very little variation in its measured dimensional quantities over a period of time - Provides the basis for BASELINE LOGIC |
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Baseline Logic
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Refers to the experimental reasoning inherent in single-subject experimental designs |
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What are the 3 Elements in Baseline Logic?
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1. Prediction 2. Verification 3. Replication Each of these elements depends on an overall experimental approach called steady state strategy |
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Steady State Strategy |
Repeated exposure of a given subject to a given condition while trying to eliminate extraneous influences on behavior and obtaining a stable pattern of responding before introducing the next condition |
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Function of Baseline Data |
- Serves as a control condition - Does NOT imply the absence of intervention. It can be the absence of a specific IV |
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Benefits of Baseline Data |
- To use the subject's performance in the absence of the IV as an objective basis for detecting change - To obtain descriptions of ABC correlations for the planning of an effective treatment - To guide us in setting the initial criteria for reinforcement - To see if the behavior targeted for change really warrants intervention |
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What are the 4 Patterns of Baseline Data? |
1. Descending Baseline 2. Ascending Baseline 3. Variable Baseline 4. Stable Baseline |
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Descending Baseline Data |
- Shows the behavior is already changing - Generally, one should NOT implement the IV when baseline is descending - But you can do so if the behavior you are trying to change is something you want to increase and the descending trend shows it is worsening - If descending baseline is due to a behavior you want to decrease, then you should wait because the behavior is already improving |
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Ascending Baseline |
- Shows the behavior is already changing - Generally, one should NOT implement the IV when baseline is ascending - But you can do so if the behavior your trying to change is something you want to decrease and the ascending trend shows it is worsening - If Ascending baseline is due to a behavior you want to increase, then you should wait because the behavior is already improving |
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Variable Baseline |
- No clear trend - If one's data is variable, wait it out and do not introduce the IV - Variability is assumed to be due to environmental variables that are uncontrolled. If you introduce the IV now, you will not be ale to tell if it changed the behavior or not - You should try to control uncontrolled sources of variability |
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Stable Baseline |
- No evidence of ascending or descending trend - All of the values of the DV fall in a small range of values - BEST way to look at the effects of the IV on the DV |
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What are the 3 parts of Baseline Logic? |
1. Prediction 2. Verification 3. Replication |
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Prediction |
- The anticipated outcome of a presently unknown measurement - Data should be collected until stability is clear - The more data points, the better the predictive power - There is no "magic number" of data points - Main question: Are data stable enough to serve as the basis for experimental comparison |
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Affirmation of the Consequent |
- If the IV were not applied, the behavior, as indicated by baseline data, would not change - The experimenter predicts the IV will change the behavior - If the IV is controlling the DV(a), then the data path in the presence of the IV will show that the DV has changed (b) - When the IV is present, data show DV has changed (b is true) - Thus, the IV is controlling the DV (thus, a is true) |
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Verification |
Verification of a previously predicted level of baseline responding by termination or withdrawal of the treatment variable |
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Replication |
- Replication is the essence of believability - Shows reliability of behavior change; we can make it happen again! - Replication is accomplished by reintroducing the IV |
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What are the 5 main Experimental Designs? |
1. Multiple Baseline 2. Changing Criterion 3. Reversal 4. Alternating Treatments 5. Withdrawal |
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Multiple Baseline Design |
- Most widely used design - Highly flexible - Staggered implementation of the intervention in a step-wise fashion across behaviors, settings, and subjects - Do not have to withdraw a treatment variable in this design - When it is UNETHICAL or impractical to reverse conditions or when the behavior is irreversible, use this design instead of a reversal design |
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Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Multiple Baseline Design |
A functional relation requires a change in behavior with the onset of the intervention
- Apply IV to Behavior 2 when you can confidently predict that the behavior would remain the same in constant conditions - If behaviors 2 and 3 remain unchanged after the application of the IV to behavior 1, this verifies the prediction - If the IV changes behavior 2 like it did behavior 1, the effects of the IV has been replicated - The more replications, the more convincing the demonstration - Most commonly 3-5 tiers |
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Multiple Baseline Across Behaviors |
- Two or more different behaviors of SAME SUBJECT - Each subject serves as his/her own control - After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first behavior, while other behaviors are kept in baseline - When steady state responding is reached for the first behavior, then the IV is applied to next behavior |
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Multiple Baseline Across Settings |
- A single behavior is targeted in 2 or more different settings or conditions
- After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first setting, while other settings are kept in baseline - When steady responding is reached for the first setting, then the IV is applied to next setting |
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Multiple Baseline Across Subjects |
- One target behavior for 2 or more subjects in the SAME SETTING - After steady state baseline responding, the IV is applied to the first subject, while other subjects are kept in baseline - When steady responding is reached for the first subject, then the IV is applied to next subject - Most widely used multiple baseline design |
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What are the 2 Variations of Multiple Baseline Design?
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1. Multiple Probe Design 2. Delayed Multiple Baseline Design - Both inherently weaker than traditional multiple baselines - use these when extended baseline measurement is unnecessary, impractical, too costly, or unavailable |
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Multiple Probe Design |
- Analyzes relation between the IV and acquisition of skill sequences - Instead of simultaneous baselines, probes provide the basis for determining if behavior change has occurred prior to intervention |
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Delayed Multiple Baseline Design |
- Initial baseline and intervention begin and subsequent baselines are added in a delayed or staggered fashion - Effective when (1) reversal design is not possible, (2) limited resources preclude a full-scale design, (3) when a new behavior, subject, or setting becomes available - Limitations: Shorter baselines do not show interdependence of DV |
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Guidelines for Multiple Baseline Design
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1. Select independent, yet functionally similar baselines 2. Select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baselines 3. Do not apply the IV to the next behavior too soon 4. Vary significantly the lengths of multiple baselines 5. Intervene on the most stable baseline first |
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Select independent, yet functionally similar baselines |
- Behaviors are functionally independent of one another - Behaviors share enough similarity that they will change with the application of the same IV - Behaviors should be of different response classes |
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Select concurrent and plausibly related multiple baselines |
- Behaviors must be measured concurrently - All relevant variables that influence one behavior must have the opportunity to influence other behaviors |
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Vary significantly the lengths of multiple baselines |
The more baselines differ in length, the stronger the design |
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Advantages of the Multiple Baseline Design |
- Successful intervention does NOT have to be removed - Evaluates generalization - Easy to implement |
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Disadvantages of the Multiple Baseline Design |
- Functional relationship is NOT directly shown in this design - Effectiveness of the IV is demonstrated, but not information regarding the function of the target behavior - IV may be delayed for certain behaviors, settings, or subjects - Takes resources to implement properly |
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Changing Criterion Design |
- Experimental design in which an initial baseline phase is followed by a series of treatment phases consisting of successive and gradually changing criteria for reinforcement or punishment - There is only ONE BEHAVIOR in this design - Behavior in this design has to already be in the subject's repertoire - Evaluates treatment that is applied in a graduated or step-wise fashion - Technically, it is a variation of the multiple baseline design |
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Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Changing Criterion Design |
- Graphs in changing criterion designs should have the lines separate a lot to show a functional relationship - Experimental control is evidenced by the extent that the level of responding changes to conform to each new criterion - If data points do not fall around the criterion lines, that shows us that there is very little experiential control |
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Guidelines for Changing Criterion Design |
1. Length of Phases 2. Magnitude of Criterion Changes 3. Number of Criterion Changes |
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Length of Phases |
- Each phase must be long enough to achieve stable responding - Target behaviors that are slower to change require longer phases - Validity of the design is increased when you vary the length of each phase |
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Magnitude of Criterion Changes |
- The size of the changes between each criterion should vary to prove strong functional relations - Changes in size must be large enough to be detectable, but not so large as to be unachievable - Changes in size can be smaller if you are dealing with stable data |
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Number of Criterion Changes |
The more criterion changes, the better proof of experimental control |
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Advantages of Changing Criterion Designs |
- Does not require reversal of improved behavior - Enables an experimental analysis within the context of a gradually improving behavior |
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Disadvantages of Changing Criterion Designs |
- The target behavior must already be in the person's repertoire - Not appropriate for analyzing the effects of a shaping program - It is NOT a comparison design |
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Why is the Changing Criterion Design is NOT Appropriate for Analyzing Effects of a Shaping Program? |
- It is an EXPERIMENTAL DEISGN that results in behavior change - With the changing criterion design, you cannot use it with a NOVEL behavior. The behavior you choose to use in this design MUST already be in the client's repertoire (unlike shaping) - The changing criterion design is best for evaluating the effects of instructional techniques on step-wise changes in rate, accuracy, duration, or latency of a single target behavior |
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Shaping
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- Behavior Change Strategy (not an experimental design) - It is used to teach NOVEL behaviors. A novel behavior is developed by reinforcing responses that meet a gradually changing criterion, which are successive approximations, towards the terminal behavior - The changing response criterion in shaping are topographical in nature, requiring different forms of behavior at each new level |
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Reversal Design |
- Any experimental design in which the researcher REVERSES responding to a level obtained in a previous condition - Encompasses experimental designs in which the IV is withdrawn or reversed in its focus - Alternation between baseline and a particular intervention - Each reversal in a reversal design strengthens experimental control - Evidence of a functional relation is strengthened with each reversal - For a reversal to occur, the behavior must approximate the level during baseline - Requires 3 consecutive phases: initial baseline, intervention, return to baseline - A-B-A-B preferred over A-B-A as stronger design - Most powerful within-subject design for demonstrating function |
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What are the 5 Variations of the Reversal Design? |
1. Repeated Reversals
2. BAB 3. Multiple Treatment Design 4. NCR Reversal Technique 5. DRO/DRA/DRI Reversal Technique |
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Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Reversal Design |
- Involves prediction, verification, and replication - The IV is responsible for behavior change if repetition of baseline and treatment phases approximate the original phases |
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Ethical Issues About Reversals |
If your client is displaying severe and dangerous behaviors, then do NOT spend time just taking baseline data from the start. It is your ETHICAL responsibility to get in there and immediately provide treatment for the health and safety of your client, so you can use a B-A-B Reversal |
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Repeated Reversals |
- Simple extension of A-B-A-B - The more reversals, the stronger your evidence of control - Redundancy may be a concern |
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B-A-B Reversals |
- A 3 phase reversal design - Phase 1: IV (B) - Phase 2: IV removed (A) - Phase 3: IV reintroduced (B) - Weaker than the A-B-A design because it does not enable assessment of the effects of the IV during baseline - Best design when your client displays severe and dangerous behaviors, as you do not wait to start intervention with this design - Also appropriate for when an IV is already in place and you have limited time |
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Disadvantages of B-A-B Reversals |
- Sequence effects are a disadvantage because the level of behavior in condition A may have been influenced by the IV before it |
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Sequence Effects |
- Effects on a subject's behavior in a given condition that are the result of the subject's experience with a prior condition |
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Multiple Treatment Reversal |
- A type of reversal design that compares 2 or more IVs to baseline and/or to one another - You can tell you are dealing with a multiple treatment reversal when letters are added, like C and/or D, etc. - Disadvantage: Sequence effects |
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Non-Contingent Reinforcement (NCR) Reversal Technique |
- An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using NCR as a CONTROL condition INSTEAD of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided - Allows us to examine contingent reinforcement - The reinforcer is presented on a fixed or variable time schedule independent of the subject's behavior |
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DRO/DRI/DRA Reversal Technique
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- An experimental technique for showing the effects of reinforcement by using DRO, DRA, DRI as a CONTROL condition INSTEAD of a baseline condition in which no reinforcement is provided - Allows us to examine continent reinforcement |
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DRO Reversal Technique
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Reinforcement following any behavior other than the target behavior |
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DRI Reversal Technique |
Reinforcement following behavior that is physically incompatible with target behavior |
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DRA Reversal Technique |
Reinforcement following an alternative behavior other than the target behavior |
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Advantages of Reversal Design |
- Clear demonstration of the existence or absence of a functional relation between the IV and DV - Enables us to count the amount of behavior change - Return to baseline tells us we need to program for maintenance |
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Disadvantages of Reversal Design |
- Irreversibility - ETHICAL ISSUES, as well as social and educational issues, can arise when you REMOVE an effective IV |
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Irreversibility |
- The level of behavior observed in an earlier phase cannot be reproduced even though experimental conditions are the same as they were during the earlier phase - When irriversibility is a problem, use DRO/DRI/DRA conditions as control techniques or multiple baseline designs |
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Alternating Treatments Design |
- An experimental design in which 2 or more conditions are presented in rapidly alternating succession independent of the level of responding and the differential effects on the target behavior are noted - Compares 2 or more IVs to one another to see which IV it would be best for you to utilize with your client - Based on stimulus discrimination - For each IV, data are plotted separately on the same graph - IVs may be: - Alternated across daily sessions - Given in sessions occurring the same day - Implemented during each portion of the same session |
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Prediction, Verification, and Replication (PVR) in the Alternating Treatments Design |
- On Graphs - Visual inspection of the differences between or among the data paths produced by each treatment - Functional relation shown when: - One data path is consistently higher than the other - No overlapping data paths - The degree of differential effects produced by 2 different treatments is determined by the vertical distance between the respective data paths - Prediction, Replication, and Verification: - Not identified in separate phases of the design - Each successive data point in treatment plays all 3 roles |
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3 Variations of Alternating Treatments Design |
1. Single Phase Without Baseline: Does not require an initial baseline 2. With Baseline: Whenever possible, baseline should be conducted, as it shows the change produced by each treatment compared to the natural level of performance without an intervention 3. With Baseline and Final Best Treatment Phase: Most widely used |
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3 Problems Avoided by Alternating Treatments Design |
1. Irreversibility 2. Sequence Effects 3. Unstable Data |
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Advantages of Alternating Treatments Design |
- Does not require treatment withdrawal - Speedy comparison - Minimizes irreversibility problem - Minimizes sequence effects - Can be used with unstable data - Can be used to assess generalization of effects - Intervention can begin immediately without baseline data |
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Disadvantages of Alternating Treatments Design |
- Multiple Treatment Interference: This is always a problem with this design, as multiple treatments are going on at the same time - Unnatural nature of rapidly alternating treatments - Limited capacity of the design - Selection of Treatments: Should be significantly different from one another |
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Withdrawal Design |
- Some authors use the term, WITHDRAWAL design, to describe experiments based on A-B-A-B analysis and reserve the term REVERSAL design for studies in which the behavioral focus of the treatment variables is reversed, as in the DRO/DRI/DRA reversal techniques - A term used by some authors as a synonym for A-B-A-B design; also used to describe experiments in which an effective treatment is sequentially or partially withdrawn to promote the maintenance of behavior changes - However, REVERSAL DESIGN, as the term is used most often in the literature, encompasses both withdrawals and reversals of the IV, signifying the researcher's attempt to demonstrate behavioral reversibility |
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Other Larger Concerns About Single- Case Designs
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- The range of questions about intervention effects that can be addressed with these designs: - Single-subject designs: BEST for treatment package evaluation - The generality of the research results: - Is the finding generalized beyond the subject in the design? - To assess generality, use replication of your IV across subjects, etc. |
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What Are The 2 Types of Validity in Experimental Designs? |
1. Internal Validity 2. External Validity |
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Internal Validity |
- The extent to which an experiment shows convincingly that changes in behavior are a function of the IV and not the result of uncontrolled or unknown variables - An internally valid study involves only 1 IV at a time. Multiple IVs are not confounded. This is the best way to see the effect of the IV on the DV. - High internal validity = Designs showing strong experimental control |
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What Are The 4 Confounding Threats to Internal Validity?
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1. Measurement Confounds 2. IV Confounds 3. Subject Confounds 4. Setting Confounds |
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Measurement Confounds |
Refers to the number and the intricacy of the behaviors you are targeting. If you are targeting numerous complicated behaviors, your internal validity may be affected. |
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Measurement Confounds May Occur Due To |
- Observer Drift - Reactivity - Observer Bias |
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Observer Drift |
When observers unknowingly alter the way they apply a measurement system |
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Reactivity |
This can refer to the behavior of our clients changing when observed. It can also refer to observers being affected by their data being monitored - How to reduce reactivity = Maintain baseline conditions long enough to run their course and for stable responding to be obtained |
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Observer Bias |
The observer's expectations that change will follow a particular direction - How to reduce observer bias = keep observers naive to expected outcomes of a study |
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IV Confounds |
- IVs are complicated together usually in a treatment package - How to reduce IV Confounds = Placebo control or double-blind control procedures (in which the subject is not aware if the IV is present or not) |
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Subject Confounds |
- Maturation: changes in subject over course of study - Repeated measurement detects uncontrolled variables |
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Setting Confounds |
- Studies in natural settings are more prone to confounding variables than in controlled laboratories - You should hold all possible aspects of the study constant until repeated measurements again reveal stable responding - Bootleg reinforcement may also occur in the natural environment |
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Confounding Variables |
- Generally, these terms are used as AKAs to refer to variables that exert an uncontrolled influence on a research study - However, sometimes there is a distinction between the terms "confounding variable" and "extraneous variable" - The effects of all these variables should be reduced or eliminated as much as possible in order to demonstrate experimental control |
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Extraneous Variable |
Any aspect of the environment that must be held constant to prevent unplanned environmental variation
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Confounding Variables |
Any uncontrolled factor known or suspected to exert influence on the dependent variable |
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External Validity |
- Degree to which a study's results are generalizable to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors - Degree to which a functional relation discovered in a study will hold under different conditions - External validity is on a spectrum ranging from a little to a lot - Replication establishes external validity |
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What Are The 2 Major Types of Scientific Replication Methods used in ABA? |
- Direct Replication - Systematic Replication |
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Direct Replication |
- Researcher exactly duplicates a previous study - Intrasubject direct replication = same subject used - Intersubject direct replication = different subject used |
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Systematic Replication |
- Researcher purposefully varies one or more aspects of an earlier experiment - Demonstrates reliability and external validity by showing the same effect can occur under different conditions - ABA research generally uses systematic replication |
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Treatment Integrity
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- Extent to which the IV is implemented or carried out as planned - Low treatment integrity: Very difficult to interpret experimental results |
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Treatment Drift |
When application of the IV in later phases differs from the original application |
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How Do You Ensure a High Level of Treatment Integrity? |
- Precise operation definition of treatment procedures - Simplify, standardize, and automate, as simple treatments are more likely to be consistently delivered and simple, easy-to-implement techniques are more likely to be used and socially validated - Training and practice for individuals who will conduct the experimental sessions |
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How Do You Assess Treatment Integrity? |
- Collect treatment integrity data to measure how the actual implementation of the conditions matches the written methods - Observation and calibration give the researcher the ongoing ability to use retraining and practice to ensure high treatment integrity - Reduce, eliminate, or identify the influence of potential confounding variable |
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What are the 2 Types of Errors in Evaluating ABA Research?
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1. Type I Error (False Positive): Assuming the IV affected the DV, when it actually did NOT do so 2. Type II Error (False Negative): Assuming the IV did NOT affect the DV, when it actually did - visual anaylsis used in ABA studies tend to lead to more Type II errors |
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What Are the 3 Dimensional Quantities? |
1. Repeatability 2. Temporal Extent 3. Temporal Locus |
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Repeatability |
- When behavior can be counted - Instances of a response class occur repeatedly through time |
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What Are the 3 Types of Repeatability Measures? |
1. Count 2. Rate 3. Celeration |
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Count |
- Formula: add up the behaviors or items - On its own, count does NOT give us enough information to make decisions regarding a client's behavior intervention program - Most useful when observation time is constant across observations |
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Rate |
- Formula: add up the behaviors or items over time - In other words, count/time - The most popular data methods used in ABA - Rate/frequency is usually reported (per second, per minute, per day, per week, per month, per year) - Report the UNIT OF TIME in your rate measure - The unit of time must be standard within the study - If the units of time are NOT standard, you cannot compare data successfully |
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When Do You Use Rate? |
You are recording free operants |
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Free Operants |
Behaviors that have discrete beginning and ending points |
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When Do You NOT Use Rate? |
- You are recording behaviors that occur only within limited or restricted conditions. These are the opposite of free operants. - You are measuring continuous behaviors that occur for extended periods of time |
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Celeration |
- Formula: count per unit of time/time - This is the same thing as saying: Frequency/time - Measure of how rates of response change over time - Celeration can mean accelerate or decelerate - A minimum of 7 measures of rate is recommended for celeration - Response rate is displayed on the vertical (y) axis - Time in days (calendar) is displayed on the horizontal (x) axis - Celeration Trend Line |
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Accelerate
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Rates of response accelerate when responding is faster over time |
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Decelerate |
Rates of response decelerate when responding slows over time |
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Celeration Trend Line |
A straight line drawn through the graphed data representing the direction and degree of the trend |
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Temporal Extent |
- When the duration of behavior can be measured - Every instance of behavior occurs during some amount of time - Only 1 Type of Temporal Extent Measure: Duration |
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Use Duration When |
- You want to measure the amount of time of a behavior - For behaviors that occur for too long a period of time or too short a period of time - High rate behavior |
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What Are The 2 Methods for Calculating Duration? |
1. Total Duration Per Session 2. Duration- Per- Occurrence |
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Total Duration Per Session |
Cumulative amount of time a person engages in the target behavior in the total session |
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Duration-Per-Occurrences |
Duration of time that each instance of the behavior occurs |
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Temporal Locus |
- Measuring the time at which behavior occurs - Locus = point in time - Temporal locus examines when an instance of behavior occurs with respect to other events |
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What are the 2 Types of Temporal Locus Measures? |
Response Latency Interresponse Time (IRT) |
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Response Latency |
Time between onset of a stimulus and initiation of a response - Latency should be used when one wants to measure how much time occurs between an opportunity to emit a behavior and when the behavior is initiated |
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Interresponse Time (IRT) |
Amount of time that elapses between 2 consecutive instances of a response class - IRT should be used when time between responses is important - Often reported by mean or median and range of IRTs per session - Functionally related to rate of response |
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What are the 2 Derivative Measures? |
1. Percentage 2. Trials-to-Criterion |
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Percentage |
- Ratio formed by combining the same dimensional quantities, such as count - Expresses the proportional quantity of some event in terms of the number of times the event occurred per 100 opportunities that the event could have occurred - Recommended minimum observation intervals or response opportunities = 30 - It is not correct to claim improvement over 100% occurred |
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What Are the Advantages of Percentage? |
- Used when one wants to document percentage of correct responses |
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What Are the Disadvantages of Percentage? |
- Percentage does NOT have a dimensional value - Percentage imposes lower and upper limits on the data - One cannot use percentage to record proficiency or fluency |
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Trials-to-Criterion |
- A measure of the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a predetermined level of performance criteria - A trial depends on the nature of the target behavior and the desired performance level - Often used to compare the relative efficiency of 2 or more treatments - Useful for assessing a learner's increasing competence in acquiring a related class of concepts - Can Use: count, rate, duration, and latency measures to determine trials-to-criterion data |
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What Do You Use Trials-to-Criterion For? |
Skills such as shoe tying, as each opportunity to tie the shoe can be considered a trial, and trials-to-criterion data are reported as the number of trials required for the learner to tie a shoe correctly. |
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What are the 2 Definitional Measures? |
1. Typography 2. Magnitude |
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Topography |
- Form or shape of the response - Topography should be used when the form of the behavior is critical - Malleable dimension of behavior = Responses of varying form are shaped and selected by their consequences - Topography does not equal Function. Topographies can be different, but still have same function |
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Magnitude |
- Force/ intensity/ severity of a behavior - Certain responses need to be emitted at specific levels of intensity |
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Continuous Measurement Procedures |
Measurement conducted in a manner such that ALL instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation period |
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Advantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures |
Useful for behaviors: - Are free operant - Have a discrete beginning and ending - Require minimal displacement of the organism in the time/space - Can be emitted at any time - Do not require much time for completion |
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Disadvantages of Continuous Measurement Procedures |
Not useful for behaviors that - Occur at high rates - Are measured via discrete trials - Occur for extended periods of time - Are opportunity-based |
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Discontinuous Measurement Procedures |
Measurement conducted in a manner such that some instances of the response class of interest may NOT be detected |
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Advantages of Discontinuous Measurement Procedures |
Useful for behaviors that - Occur at high rates - Occur for long durations of time - Are measured via discrete trials - Are measured via percentage |
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Disadvantages of Disconitnuous Measurement |
Not useful for behaviors that: - Are free operant - It is important to obtain every occurrence of that behavior - Require constant attending by observer |
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What are the 3 Procedures for Measuring Behavior? |
1. Event Recording: Continuous Measurement Procedure 2. Timing: Continuous Measurement Procedure 3. Time Sampling: DIScontinuous Measurement Procedure |
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Event Recording |
- Methods to record the number of times a response occurs
- Choose an Event Recording Device: Pencil and paper, wrist counters, hand tally, digital counters, masking tape, pennies, buttons, calculators, etc. |
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Advantages of Event Recording
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- Fairly accurate method - Simple to implement; you can do this while engaging in other activities - Great to use with free operant behaviors |
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Disadvantages of Event Recording |
DO NOT USE EVENT RECORDING WHEN responses occur at very high rates, continuous behaviors, and/or DTT data |
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Timing |
Used to measure: - Duration - Response Latency - Interresponse Time (IRT) Timing Device: stopwatch |
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Time Sampling
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- Variety of methods for recording behavior during intervals or at specific moments in time - Time sampling methods give us an approximation of the actual instances of behavior |
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How do you design and implement time sampling procedures? |
First, divide the observation period into equal intervals of time Next, record the presence or absence of behavior within or at the end of each interval. |
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Advantages of Time Sampling |
Great for recording continuous and/or high rate behavior |
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Disadvantages of Time Sampling
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Do NOT use when you want to record certain important, but fairly infrequent behaviors |
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Continuous Behaviors VS. Continuous Measurement Procedures |
Continuous Behaviors: behaviors that do NOT have a clear beginning and ending - Counting each response or measuring its duration would be too hard - For continuous behaviors, you should use a discontinuous measurement procedure! Like one of the time sampling/interval recording methods VS. Continuous Measurement Procedures: measurement conducted in a manner such that all instances of the response class of interest are detected during the observation perio |
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What are the 3 Forms of Time Sampling? |
1. Whole Interval Recording 2. Partial Interval Recording 3. Momentary Time Sampling All 3 methods are used for: - Continuous behavior - High rate behavior, meaning it is difficult to distinguish one response from another |
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Whole Interval Recording |
A time sampling method for measuring behavior in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief time interval. At the end of each interval, the observer records whether the target behavior occurred throughout the entire interval; tends to underestimate the proportion of the observation period that many behaviors actually occurred |
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How Do You Design and Implement Whole Interval Recording? |
- Divide the observation period into a series of brief intervals - At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred throughout the interval - Reporting data: Always percentage! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred |
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What Are The Advantages of Whole Interval Recording? |
- Best for measuring a behavior you want to increase - Why? Because if you want to increase a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is whole interval |
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What Are the Disadvantages of Whole Interval Recording? |
- Not good to use when you decrease behavior - You are required to observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval |
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Partial Interval Recording |
A time sampling method for measuring in which the observation period is divided into a series of brief time intervals. The observer records whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval. Partial-interval recording is not concerned with how many times the behavior occurred during the interval or how long the behavior was present, just that it occurred at some point during the interval; tends to overestimate the proportion of the observation period that the behavior actually occurred |
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How to Design and Implement Partial Interval Recording |
- Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals - At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at any time during the interval - Reporting data: always percentage! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred Used to represent the proportion % of the entire observation period that the behavior occurred |
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What Are the Advantages of Partial Interval Recording? |
- Easy to measure multiple behaviors concurrently - Best for measuring a behavior you want to DECREASE - Why? Because if you want to decrease a behavior, you want to select the more conservative time sampling method, which is partial interval |
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What Are the Disadvantages of Partial Interval Recording? |
- Not good to use when you want to increase behavior
- Must observe the target behavior throughout the entire interval |
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Momentary Time Sampling |
A measurement method in which the presence or absence of behaviors are recorded at precisely specified time intervals |
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How Do You Design and Implement Momentary Time Sampling? |
- Divide the observation period into a series of brief time intervals - At the end of each interval, record whether the target behavior occurred at that time interval only - Reporting data: Always Percentages! You record the percentage of total intervals in which the target behavior occurred Used to estimate the proportion of the total observation period that the behavior occurred |
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What Are the Advantages of Momentary Time Sampling? |
You do NOT have to continuously measure throughout the entire interval (as you would have in whole and partial interval procedures) |
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What Are the Disadvantages of Momentary Time Sampling?
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- Much of the behavior of interest is missed or unaccounted - To avoid this problem, you should keep the intervals short and observe the target behavior frequently |
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Planned Activity Check |
- For Groups - A variation of Momentary Time Sampling |
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Permanent Product |
- Measuring behavior after it has occurred by measuring the effects the behavior produced on the environment - A change in the environment produced by a behavior that lasts long enough for measurement to take place - Ex Post Facto Measurement - Natural or contrived outcomes - Event recording, timing, and time sampling can be applied to measurement by permanent product - Behaviors that do NOT have a direct effect on the environment can be measured by permanent product through using videotape, photographs, audiotapes, etc. The are contrived permanent products. |
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Ex Post Facto Measurement |
Measurement takes place after behavior has occurred |
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Advantages of Permanent Product |
- Practitioner is free to do other tasks - Makes inconveniently timed behaviors easier to observe - Measurement may be more accurate, complete, and continuous - Facilitates data collection for IOA and treatment integrity - Enables data collection for behaviors with multiple response classes - Reduces any potential reactivity because the observer does not have to sit and watch the client engage in the target behavior, but simply can look at the permanent product after the client has completed the required task |
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Disadvantages of Permanent Product |
The response accountable for producing a particular outcome may vary |
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Selecting the Right Measurement System to Obtain Representative Data Given the Dimensions of the Behavior |
- Some classes of a behavior lend themselves to one system of recording; other to another - You should select a way to record data that provides the most ethical and valid depiction of the target behavior - Behavior results in tangible product? Counting or permanent product are great to use - Behavior is transitory? Event recording or time sampling may be better |
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3 Indicators of Trustworthy Measurements |
1. Validity 2. Accuracy 3. Reliability |
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Validity |
3 Elements: 1. Directly measuring socially significant target behavior 2. Measuring Dimension of the target behavior relevant to the question or concern about the behavior 3. Ensuring that the data are representative of the behavior's occurrence under conditions during TIMES that are most relevant to the concern about the behavior - If any of these above elements are lacking even if data seems valid and reliable, the validity of the resultant data are compromised, even meaningless - Measurement has validity when it yields data that are directly relevant to the phenomenon measured and to the reasons for measuring it |
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What are the 3 Threats to Measurement Validity |
1. Indirect Measurement 2. Measuring the Wrong Dimension of the Target Behavior 3. Measurement Artifacts |
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Indirect Measurement (Threats to Validity) |
- Secondhand or filtered information - Researcher measures a proxy, or stand-in, for the actual behavior of interest - Useful when there is no direct access to the behavior of interest - Sometimes used to make inferences about private events - When using indirect measurement, it is the responsibility of the researcher to provide evidence that the event measured directly reflects, in some reliable and meaningful way, something about the behavior for which the researcher wishes to draw conclusions - Direct measures of target behaviors will always have more validity than indirect measures |
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Measuring the Wrong Dimension of the Target Behavior (Threats to Validity) |
More threatening to validity than indirect measurement |
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Accuracy |
- The extent to which the observed value matches the true value of an event - For something to be considered a true value requires special or extraordinary precautions that ensure that all possible sources of error have been removed - If measurement is not valid, accuracy is questionable |
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How to Establish True Values for Accuracy Measures |
- Because you need to compare observed values to true values, your process to determine true values must be different than the measurement procedures used to obtain the observed values - When true values cannot be established, researchers must rely on reliability assessments and measure of interobserver agreement (IOA) to evaluate the quality of their data |
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Reliability |
- The extent to which a measurement procedure yields the same value when brought into repeated contact with the same state of nature - Same results repeatedly - Poor reliability reveals problems with accuracy - Consistent measurement - The closer the values obtained by repeated measurement, the more reliable they are - If a measure is NOT reliable, it cannot be valid - Yet even if the measures are found to be reliable, that doesn't necessarily mean they will also be valid |
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Threats to Measurement Accuracy and Reliability |
- Human Error: biggest threat to the accuracy and reliability of data - In ABA, mostly human observers measure behaviors |
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What are the Factors that Contribute to Human Measurement Error? |
- Poorly Designed measurement systems - Inadequate observer training - Expectations about what the data should look like |
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Poorly Designed Measurement Systems |
- Difficult and cumbersome measurement systems - Number of participants to observe, number of behaviors to record, duration of observation period, and/or duration of observation intervals - Simplified systems minimize errors |
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Inadequate Observer Training |
Observers need explicit and systematic training: 1. Select observers carefully 2. Train observers to a standard of competency 3. Provide ongoing training to minimize observer drift |
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Observer Drift |
- When observers unknowingly alter the way they measure a behavior - Unintended changes in the way data are collected may produce measurement error - Occurs when observers have a shift in how they interpret the definitions of the target behavior - The target behavior definitions DRIFT or change over time - How to Minimize: Retraining observers and providing detailed feedback on the accuracy and reliability of measurement |
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Measurement Bias |
- Nonrandom Measurement error - Errors in measurement likely to be in one direction - Data that overestimates or underestimates the true value of an event - Expectations that a target behavior will occur under certain conditions or change with a certain treatment can influence what is recorded and threaten the accuracy of measurement - Naive Observers - Observer Reactivity - How to minimize: monitor and record data unobtrusively. Use videotaping for second observer to observe the same session |
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Naive Observers |
Minimizes measurement bias. Trained observer who is unaware of the study's purpose and/or experimental conditions in effect |
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Observer Reactivity |
Measurement error resulting from an observer's knowledge that others are evaluating the data he/she reports. An observer can be influenced by how he/she anticipates another observer will record data |
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Interobserver Agreement (IOA) |
- Refers to the degree to which 2 or more independent observers report the same values after measuring the same events - Reporting IOA increases believably that the data is trustworthy and deserving of interpretation |
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Benefits and Uses of IAO |
1. Determines the competence of new observers
2. Detects observer drift 3. Increases or decreases confidence that the definition of the target behavior was clear and the measurement code was not too difficult 4. Gives confidence that variability in data is not a function of which observers were on duty, therefore implying that changes in data actually reflect changes in behavior |
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What are the 4 Event Recording IOAs? |
1. Total Count IOA
2. Mean Count-per-Interval IOA 3. Exact Count-per-Interval IOA 4. Trial-by-Trial IOA |
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Total Count IOA |
- Simplest method for event recording
- Percentage of agreement between the total number of responses recorded by 2 observers - Calculated by dividing the smaller of the counts by the larger count and multiplying by 100 - Overestimates the extent of actual agreement - For more specific IOA, especially in DTT, use Trial-to-Trial IOA |
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What is the Formula for Trial Count IOA? |
Smaller # X 100% ----------------- Larger # |
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Mean Count-per-Interval IOA
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- Dividing the observation period into a series of smaller counting times - Observers record the number of occurrences of the behavior within each interval - Calculate the agreement between the count of the 2 observers within each interval - Use the agreements per interval as the basis for calculating the IOA for the total observation period |
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Exact Count-per-Interval IOA |
- The percentage of intervals in which 2 observers recorded the same count - The most strict event recording IOA method |
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What is the Formula for Count-per-Interval IOA? |
# of Intervals of 100% IOA Agreement X 100% ------------------------------------------------------- Total # of Intervals |
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Trial-by-Trial IOA |
The agreement between 2 observers who measured the occurrence or nonoccurrence of discrete trial behaviors for which the count for each trial, or response opportunity, can only be 0 or 1 can be calculated by comparing the observers' total counts or by comparing their counts on a trial-by-trial basis |
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What is the Formula for Trial-by-Trial IOA? |
# of Trials of Agreement X 100 ------------------------------------ Total # of Trials |
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What are the 2 Timing/Duration IOAs? |
1. Total Duration IOA 2. Mean Duration-Per-Occurrence IOA |
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Total Duration IOA |
Computed by dividing the shorter of the 2 durations reported by the 2 observers by the longer duration and multiplying by 100% |
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What is the Formula for Total Duration IOA? |
Shorter Duration X 100% ------------------------- Longer Duration |
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Mean Duration (or IRT)-Per-Occurrence IOA |
- Used to calculate duration-per-occurrence data - A more conservative and usually more meaningful assessment of IOA than total duration data - This formula can also be used to compute the mean latency-per-response IOA or mean IRT-per-response IOA |
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What is the Formula for the Mean Duration (or IRT)-Per-Occurrence IOA? |
Duration IOA B1 + Duration IOA B2 + Duration IOA Bn
------------------------------------------------------------------- n Behaviors with Duration IOA |
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What are the 3 Time Sampling/Interval Recording IOAs?
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1. Interval-by-Interval IOA 2. Scored Interval IOA 3. Unscored Interval IOA |
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Interval-by-Interval IOA |
- The primary observer's data for each interval is matched to the secondary observer's data for the same interval - Likely to overestimate the actual agreement measuring behaviors that occur at very high or very low rates - Subject to random or accidental agreement between observers |
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What is the Formula for Interval-by-Interval IOA? |
# of Intervals Both Recorders are in Agreement X 100% ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Total # of Intervals |
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Scored Interval IOA |
- Only uses intervals in which both observers scored an occurrence of the behavior to calculate the IOA - Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates because it ignores the intervals in which measure by chance is highly likely - Recommended for behaviors that occur at frequencies of approximately 30% or fewer of intervals to avoid over inflated and possibly misleading IOA measures |
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What is the Formula for Scored Interval IOA? |
# of Intervals Both Recorders Recorded Occurrence X 100% ----------------------------------------------------------- # of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Occurrence |
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Unscored Interval IOA |
- Minimizes the effects of chance agreements for interval data on behavior that occur at very high or very low rates - Only considers intervals in which either or both observers recorded a non-occurrence of behavior |
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What is the Formula for Unscored Interval IOA? |
# of Intervals Both Recorders Non-Recorded Occurrence X 100% ----------------------------------------------------------- # of Intervals AT LEAST ONE Recorder Recorded Occurrence |
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How Often and When Should IOA Be Obtained? |
- During each phase of a study and should be distributed across days of the week, times of day, settings, and observers - Should be obtained for a minimum of 20% of sessions |
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How Should IOA Be Reported? |
1. Narrative Description: Most common and simplest. You can describe the mean and range of agreement percentages 2. Table 3. Graphic Display: The visual of the graph provides extent between agreement and existence of observer drift |
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What are Acceptable IOA Scores? |
The closer to 100% the better. No less than 80%. |
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Data
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- Medium with which the behavior analyst works
- Results of Measurement - Empirical basis for decision-making - It is difficult to assess what is happening with the target you are trying to measure if you only look at raw data |
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Graphs |
- Visual format for displaying data - Reveals relations among and between a series of measurements and relevant variables - Helps people make sense of quantitative information - How behavior analysts organize, store, interpret, and communicate the results of our work |
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What are the 3 Purposes of Graphs?
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1. Communicate: Communicates our data 2. Assess: Helps us to assess data correctly 3. I/D -IV/DV: Shows how the DV and IV are related to one another |
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What are the 5 Benefits of Graphs?
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1. Gives you an immediate picture of an individuals behavior 2. Allows you to explore interesting variations in behavior as they are occurring 3. Acts as a judgmental aid to help you interpret the results of a study or treatment 4. Acts as a conservative method for determining the significance of behavior change, because a behavior change that is statistically significant may not look impressive on a graph 5. Allows for an independent judgement and evaluation of the data |
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What are the 5 Types of ABA Graphs? |
1. Line 2. Bar 3. Cumulative Record 4. Scatter Plot 5. Standard Celeration (Semilogarithmic Chart) |
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Equal-Interval Graphs |
- Graphs in which the distance between any 2 consecutive points on both the X-Axis and Y-Axis is always the same - All intervals are the same size |
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What are the Equal-Interval Graphs? |
- Line Graphs - Bar graphs - Cumulative Records - Scatter Plots |
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What are the Non-Equal Interval Graphs? |
Logarithmic scales, including semi-logarithmic scales, one if which is the standard celeration chart, look at behavior change through proportionate or relative change |
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Line Graphs |
- Most common graphs in ABA - Based on the Cartesian Plane - Use a balanced ratio between the height and width of the axes - Y-axis should be shorter than x-axis - Each point on a line graph shows the level of some quantifiable dimension of the DV in relation to the IV in effect when the data was recorded - Comparing data points lets us examine level, trend, and variability - Use line graphs when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations: Data that can be scaled along some dimension, sch as time or the order of responses in a sequence |
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Cartesian Plane |
2-Dimensional area formed by 2 perpendicular lines that intersect |
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What are the 7 Parts of a Line Graph? |
1. Horizontal Axis 2. Vertical Axis 3. Condition Change Lines 4. Condition Labels 5. Data Points 6. Data Path 7. Figure Caption |
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Horizontal Axis (Line Graph) |
- Represents passage of time and the presence, absence, or value of the IV - Left to right passing of time in equal intervals - Tic marks are placed on the x-axis with equal spacing between them - Utilize a scale break to represent discontinuities in time |
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Vertical Axis (Line Graph) |
- Represents the full range of values of the DV - On an equal-interval graph, the scaling of this axis is really important to see changes in the level, trend and variability in the data - Origin: Intersection of the horizontal and vertical axis - Usually represents the zero value of the DV - Origin should be marked at zero |
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Condition Change Lines (Line Graph) |
- Vertical Lines drawn upward from x-axis to show points in time at which changes in the IV occurred - Solid Lines = Major Changes - Dashed Lines = Minor Changes |
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Condition Labels |
A label, written at the top and parallel to the x-axis, that describes experimental conditions in effect during each phase of research |
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Data Points |
- Each data point on graph has two meanings 1. A quantifiable measure of the target behavior recorded during a given observation period 2. The time and/or experimental conditions under which that particular measurement was conducted - If there is more than 1 set of data on the graph, different symbols are used to show this. Do NOT use colors on a graph in ABA/ - Coordinates of a data point in graphs are always displayed as (x, y) |
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Data Path |
- Connects successive data points with a straight line. Illustrates level and trend of behavior between 2 consecutive data points - The data path should be examined to interpret graphs - Maximum of 4 different data paths can be displayed effectively on 1 set of axes |
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Figure Caption |
- Concise statemetn that provides information to identify the IV and DV. Also explains symbols used and unplanned events - Printed below graph |
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When Should Data Points Not be Connected in A Line Graph? |
Data points are NOT connected in a line graph if: a. Data points fall on either side of a condition change line b. Time has passed and the behavior was not measured c. There was a discontinuity in time on the x-axis d. Data were not collected, lost, etc. e. It is follow-up or post-check data |
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Line Graph Variations |
- Line graphs can be very complicated, especially when multiple data paths are represented - Examples of line graphs that are more complex than what we typically may utilize - 2 or more Dimensions of the Same behavior - 2 or more different Behaviors - Measure of the same behavior under different conditions - Changing the values of the IV - Same behavior of 2 more participants |
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Bar Graphs |
- Based on the Cartesian Plane, similar to the line graph - However, there are NO distinct data points representing successive response measures through time - Does NOT allow for analysis of variability and trend in behavior - Use bar graphs when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations 1. Displaying separate sets of data that ARE NOT related to one another 2. Summarizing performance within a condition or a group of individual |
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Cumulative Records |
A type of graph on which the cumulative number of responses emitted is represented on the vertical axis; the steeper the slope of the data path, the greater the response rate |
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What are the 2 Types of Cumulative Record Response Rates? |
1. Overall Response Rate 2. Local Response Rate |
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Cumulative Record Response Rates |
- The steeper the slope, the higher the response rate - Rate/frequency: number of responses/time |
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Overall Response Rate |
An average rate of response over a given time period, such as during a specific session or phase in a study - Calculated by dividing the total # of responses recorded during the period by the # of observation periods indicated on the x-axis |
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Local Response Rate |
An average rate of response during periods of time smaller than that for which an overall response rate has been given - Same calculation as overall response rate, but only using a small portion of the data on the graph |
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What Relevant Quantitative Relations Are Effectively Communicated on the Cumulative Record? |
1. The target behavior can be measured in cumulative units: one look at this cumulative record and you see your data 2. The target behavior only occurs once per observation period 3. The cumulative record shows how rapidly or slowly the target responses are repeated: you can see this by looking at the steepness of the slope. Steeper slope = more rapid response 4. The cumulative record can be used as personal feedback: individuals can use this for looking at their own behaviors in self-management programs 5. The effects of the IV are easier to detect on a cumulative record rather than a noncumulative graph: Cumulative records reveal more intricate details between behavior and environmental variables |
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Semilogarithmic Charts |
- Logarithmic Scales look at behavior change through proportional or relative change - X-Axis: in equal intervals (like other graphs) - Y-Axis: scaled logarithmically - Semilogarithmic Scale: graphs in which one axis is scaled proportionally - On a semilogarithmic chart, all behavior changes of equal proportion are shown by equal proportion are shown by equal vertical distances on the vertical axis - Data that is shown as an exponential curve on an equal interval chart is a straight line on a semilogarithmic chart |
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Standard Celeration Chart
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A multiply-divide chart with six base-10 cycles on the vertical axis that can accommodate response rates as low as 1 per 24 hours to as high as 1,000 per minute.It enables the standardized charting of celeration, a factor by which rate of behavior multiplies or divides per unit of time |
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What Relevant Quantitative Relations Are Effectively Communicated on the Standard Celeration chart? |
Primarily when you your concern is promoting rate of responding - Rate of responding is really important because research shows that the more rapid and fluent the rate of correct responding, the more durable the learning |
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Scatter Plots |
- Show relative distribution of individual measures in a data set - Data points are unconnected - Depict changes in value on one axis correlated with changes in value on the other axis - One variable is plotted on the y-axis and a second variable is plotted on the x-axis - Use scatter plots when you want your data to effectively communicate the following relevant quantitative relations: - The temporal distribution of the behavior - The grouping of the individual data points may help to identify elusive environmental stimuli |
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What are the 3 Fundamental Properties of Behavior Change? |
1. Level 2. Trend 3. Variability |
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Level |
- Value on the vertical axis around which a series of data measures converge - A change in level is illustrated when the data's average value changes - An analysis of level answers the question, "how much has the behavior changed?" - Levels in your data are examined by looking at your data's mean, median, and/or range |
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Mean Level Line |
Horizontal line drawn through the data points on the vertical axis equaling the average or mean value of the data - Use with caution because it can obscure important variability - Adds an easy-to-see summary of average performance |
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Median Level Line |
Horizontal line drawn through the data points on the vertical axis that shows the most typical performance within a condition - Better than the mean level line when your data has extreme outliers, either high or low |
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Trend |
The overall direction taken bay a data path. It is described in terms of direction (increasing, decreasing or zero trend), degree (gradual or steep), and the extent of variability of data points around the trend. Trend is used in predicting future measures of the behavior under unchanging conditions. |
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What Are The 6 Steps in a Split-Middle Line of Progress? |
1. Count
2. Divide 3. Mid: Mid-Rate 4. Mid: Mid-Date 5. Quarter: Quarterly- Intersect Line of Progress 6. Split: Split-Middle Line of Progress |
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Count |
Looking at a graph full of data points, COUNT how many data points are on the graph |
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Divide |
Draw a vertical line to divide the number of data points in half. If uneven number of data points, the dividing vertical line is going to be through one of the data points |
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Mid: Mid-Rate |
For each half of the data, find the middle point (up to down). Mid-Rates are the middle values on the y-axis for each half on the data series. If there are an even number of data points on each half, use the mean of the two middle-most points as the mid-rate. |
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Mid: Mid-Date |
For each half of the data, find the middle points (left to right) |
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Quarter: Quarterly Intersect Line of Progress |
Connect the 2 mid-date and mid-rate points of intersectio |
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Split: Split- Middle Line of Progress |
Shift the quarterly-intersect line up or down (keeping it parallel to itself) so that an equal number of points fall above and below it. In the graph above, there are an equal number of data points that fall above and below the line, so there is NO NEED to shift the line for any reason. The trend line will ALWAYS have an equal number of data points that fall above and below the line |
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Variability |
- The extent to which the data "bounce around" on the graph - An analysis of variability answers the question, "how consistent is the change that is taking place?" - Frequency and degree to which multiple measures of behavior yield different outcomes - High degree of variability = little or no control over the factors influencing behavior |
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Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data WITHIN Conditions |
Examining the data within each condition, determine the level, trend, and/or variability in each condition |
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Visual Analysis of Temporal Relations of Data BETWEEN Conditons |
Comparing the data in the different conditions, determine whether change in level, trend, and/or variability occurred and to what extent any changes were significant |