Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
100 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
PCR
|
-polymerase chain reaction
-used in DNA sequencing -make many copies of DNA, for example, for gel electrophoresis |
|
Recombinant DNA
|
-is made by connecting, or recombining, fragments of DNA from different sources
-can be inserted into a host organism's chromosomes and that organism will use this foreign DNA as if it were its own. -There is the a three-step process that produces a transgenic organism containing foreign DNA |
|
RFLP
|
-Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms
-a variation in the DNA sequence of a genome that can be detected by breaking the DNA into pieces with restriction enzymes and analyzing the size of the resulting fragments by gel electrophoresis. -a technique that can identify some differences in sequence |
|
Gel Electrophoresis
|
-a technique used for the separation of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), ribonucleic acid (RNA), or protein molecules using an electric current applied to a gel matrix.
- It is usually performed for analytical purposes, but may be used as a preparative technique prior to use of other methods such as mass spectrometry, RFLP, PCR, cloning, DNA sequencing, or Southern blotting for further characterization. |
|
agarose
|
-material in gel
-Agar or agar agar is a gelatinous substance derived from seaweed. |
|
buffer
|
-In studies like DNA fingerprinting the lysis buffer is used for DNA isolation.
- A lysis buffer is used for the purpose of lysing cells for use in experiments that analyze the compounds of the cells There are many different kind of lysis buffers that one can apply, depending on what analysis the cell lysate will be used for e.g. red blood cell lysis buffer. |
|
micropipet
|
-used to measure really small stuff
-Pipettes are used to accurately measure and dispense small volumes of liquid. -The capacity of a micropipette can range from less than 1µl to 1000µl (1ml), while macropipettes can measure volumes greater than 1ml. |
|
sickle-cell anemia
|
- a person has slow blood flow, small vessels are blocked, and results in tissue damage and pain. It can also cause disorders.
- Families whose originated from Africa and in white Americans whose families originated in countries surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. - the some or all red blood cells are crystallized and look weird. |
|
AA
|
- a normal individual
- may get extremely sick or die from malaria |
|
AS
|
- a carrier with sickle-cell trait
-codominance( In co-dominance, the phenotypes of both homozygotes are produced in the heterozygote.) -not likely will die from malaria |
|
SS
|
- a sickle-cell sufferer
-not likely will die from malaria |
|
restriction enzyme
|
- DNA-cutting enzymes that can cut both strands of DNA molecule at a specific nucleotide sequence.
-Such enzymes, found in bacteria and archaea, are thought to have evolved to provide a defense mechanism against invading viruses. -Restriction enzymes recognize a specific sequence of nucleotides[2] and produce a double-stranded cut in the DNA. |
|
evolution
|
-the modern theory of evolution is the fundamental concept of all the scientific study of biology.
- defined as the chance in populations over time - The father of the modern theory of evolution is Charles Darwin |
|
variation
|
- After Malthus' ideas about populations Darwin then observed that he could see variations within his pidgeon flock.
- Variation in populations was one of the things that Darwin observed. |
|
fitness
|
-To Darwin fitness was evidence of an organism's physical and behavioral traits that lead to survival and reproduction.
|
|
adaptation
|
- According to Darwin, any inherited characteristic that increases an organism's fitness for survival is a/an adaptation
- any trait that aids the chances of survival and reproduction - adaptations also are only kind of inherited traits that increase success of the organism. |
|
common descent
|
-A group of organisms is said to have common descent if they have a common ancestor.
|
|
fossil record
|
-provide a record of early life and evolutionary history
-Relative dating by looking at layers of sedimentary rock - Absolute dating using the relative amounts of radioactive elements preserved in a fossil |
|
homologous structures
|
- similar structures that have different functions
- the skeletal structures of mammals are all similar in design |
|
vestigial structures
|
-organs and structures that don't seem to have any useful function but still exist
- like snake legs, nictitating membranes, canine legs, and nipples on males |
|
biochemical similarities
|
-DNA
-ATP -amino acids -cytochrome |
|
paleontologists
|
-scientists who specialize in the study of rocks and changes in the Earth are this
|
|
Charles Darwin
|
-The father of the modern theory of evolution
-observed the wildlife and their environments around the world for 5 years on the HMS Beagle - created the process of Natural Selection - gotten most of the recognition for the modern theory of evolution because in 1559 he published his book explaining his theory, the books title is "On the Origin by Means of Natural Selection" |
|
use and disuse
|
-basically, the more you use something, the better it gets through evolution, the less you use something, the more it gets worse until it eventually is gone.
|
|
artificial selection
|
-Breeding organisms with specific traits in order to produce offspring with identical traits.
|
|
natural selection
|
- a mechanism for change in populations
- occurs when organisms with favorable variations survive, reproduce, and pass their variations to the next generation. -organisms without these variations are less likely to survive and reproduce |
|
population
|
-Thomas' idea that the human population grows faster than Earth's food supply
-Darwin realized that individuals struggle to compete in changing environmental conditions. |
|
gene pool
|
-All of the alleles of the population's genes as being together in a large pool
|
|
relative frequency or allelic frequency
|
-the percentage of any specific allele in the gene pool is called this
- scientists calculate the allelic frequency of an allele in the same way that a baseball player calculates a batting average. |
|
allele
|
- alternative forms of a gene for each variation of a trait of an organism
|
|
species
|
-group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring in nature
|
|
niche
|
-role or position a species has in its environment; includes all biotic and abiotic interactions as an animal meets its needs for survival and reproduction
|
|
speciation
|
-The evolution of new species, a process which is called this
-speciation occurs when members of similar populations no longer interbreed to produce fertile offspring within their natural environment -a process that produces two species from one |
|
adaptive radiation
|
-divergent evolution in which ancestral species evolve into an array of species to fit a number of diverse habitats
-adaptive radiation in both plants and animals has occurred and continues to occur throughout the world and is common on islands. |
|
convergent evolution
|
- a pattern of evolution in which distantly related organisms evolve similar traits
-occurs when unrelated species occupy similar environments in different parts of the world. -because they share similar environmental pressures, they share similar pressures of natural selection |
|
classification
|
-the grouping of objects or information based on similarities
-one of the tools that biologists use to better understand organisms so they organize them |
|
phylogeny
|
-evolutionary history of a species based on comparative relationships of structures and comparisons of modern life forms with fossils.
-One biological system of classification that is based on phylogeny is cladistics. Scientists who use cladistics assume that as groups of organisms diverge and evolve from a common ancestral group, they retain some unique inherited characteristics that taxonomists call derived traits |
|
binomial nomenclature
|
- the 2 word naming system used in classification
-includes the genus and the specific epithet |
|
taxonomy
|
-the branch of biology that groups that groups and names organisms based on studies of their different characteristics.
|
|
taxon
|
- a group of organisms, which a taxonomist adjudges to be a unit
-Usually a taxon is given a name and a rank, although neither is a requirement. Defining what belongs or does not belong to such a taxonomic group is done by a taxonomist |
|
6 kingdoms
|
Eubacteria, Archaebacteria, protists, fungi, plants, animals, anthropods, mollusks and worms, and jellyfishes and sponges
|
|
immunity
|
Immunity is a medical term that describes a state of having sufficient biological defenses to avoid infection, disease, or other unwanted biological invasion. Immunity involves both specific and non-specific components. The non-specific components act either as barriers or as eliminators of wide range of pathogens irrespective of antigenic specificity. Other components of the immune system adapt themselves to each new disease encountered and are able to generate pathogen-specific immunity.
|
|
1st line of defense
|
skin, mucous membrane, cilia, Hcl, tears, temperature
|
|
lymphocyte
|
-type of white blood cell stored in lymph nodes that defends the body against foreign agents
|
|
anitbody(Ab)
|
-proteins that the body produces in response to invasion by Ag
-ab neutralizes toxins -clumps viruses of bacteria |
|
Antigen(Ag)
|
-any foreign protein or polysaccharide that stimulates the body to produce antibodies
- ANTIbody + GENerating = Antigen |
|
passive immunity
|
-the Ab comes from another source:
- Ab from another through the placenta or from the -mother's milk -Ab is made and then injected ex:snake bite, bee sting |
|
active immunity
|
a natural process:
-get infected -make Ab -get well -immunity in the memory bank -5 days, 3,000 to 30,000 Ab/sec. |
|
vaccine
|
-substance consisting of weakened, dead, or incomplete portions of pathogens or antigens that produce an immune response when injected into the body.
|
|
virus
|
composed of
-nucleic acids enclosed in a protein coat called a capsid -smaller than the smallest bacterium -nucleic acid either DNA or RNA -some enzymes-lysozymes to break into the host cell -largely non-living but reproduces -many cause diseases in plants and animals |
|
obligate intracellular parasite
|
-"means something needs a host"
-"lives off cell's resources" |
|
Wendell Stanley
|
-identified the first viruses while he was working with the
-TMV aka Tobacco Mosaic Virus |
|
TMV
|
tobacco mosaic virus
- discovered by Wendell Stanley |
|
receptor site
|
-before a virus can replicate it must recognize and attach to a receptor site on the host cell
|
|
capsid
|
-outer coat of proteins that surrounds a virus's inner core of nucleic acid; arrangement of capsid proteins determines the virus's shape
-Some relatively large viruses, such as human viruses, may have an additional layer, called an envelope, surrounding their capsids |
|
nucleic acid
|
-The core of nucleic acid contains a virus's genetic material.
- Viral nucleic acid is either DNA or RNA and contains instructions for making copies of the virus. |
|
E.coli
|
Escheria coli
|
|
lytic cycle
|
-viral replication cycle in which a virus takes over a host cell's genetic material and uses the host cell's structures and energy to replicate until the host cell bursts, killing it
-the viral genes alter the host cell to make new viruses, the host cell uses its own enzymes, raw materials, and energy to make copies of viral genes -the new viruses can then infect and kill other host cells |
|
lysogenic cycle
|
-a replication cycle in which the virus's nucleic acid is integrated into the host cell's chromosome.
-begins in the same way as a lytic cycle but instead of immediately taking over the host's genetic material, the viral DNA is integrated into the host cell's chromosome. -Which is called a provirus. |
|
prophage
|
A prophage is a phage genome inserted as part of the linear structure of the DNA chromosome of a bacterium. A temperate phage integrated into the host chromosome or existing as an extrachromosomal plasmid. This is a latent form of a bacteriophage in which the viral genes are incorporated into the bacterial chromosomes without causing disruption of the bacterial cell.
|
|
parasite
|
-symbiotic relationship in which one organism benefits at the expense of another, usually another species.
|
|
retrovirus
|
-has an enzyme that transcribes their RNA code to the DNA code of the host cell
- cause the infected cell to make an enzyme "RNA-dependent DNA polymerase" -RNA acts as a template to form another complementary strand of DNA |
|
reverse transcriptase
|
-codes the RNA back to a new strand of DNA
|
|
prokaryote
|
-unicellular organisms
-enclosed in a prokaryotic cell |
|
bacteriophage
|
a virus that infects a bacterium
|
|
viral diseases
|
-hepatitis: a lysogenic provirus that causes hepatitis B.
-cold/flu: caused by the influenza virus -measles: a lysogenic provirus -polio: a retrovirus caused by RNA -herpes: a lysogenic provirus that is caused by the herpes simplex II -chicken pox: also a lysogenic provirus that can cause shingles |
|
bacteria
|
-a bacterium consists of a very small cell that has all the structures necessary to carry out its life functions
-Ribosomes are smaller than those of eukaryotes -the cell wall protects the bacterium by preventing it from bursting |
|
methanogen
|
-methane-producing bacteria
|
|
bacilli
|
-Rod-shaped bacteria
|
|
cocci
|
-Spherical-shaped bacteria
|
|
sprilla
|
-sprial-shaped bacteria
|
|
gram stain
|
-a technique that distinguishes two groups of bacteria because the stain reflects a basic difference in the composition of bacterial cell walls.
-After staining, gram-positive bacteria are purple, and gram-negative bacteria are pink. |
|
nitrogen fixation
|
-by bacteria converts (N2) nitrogen in soil into usable fertilizer
-especially in nodules on the roots of legumes |
|
decomposer
|
break down organic material + recycle the basic organic compounds
|
|
obligate aerobe
|
mycobacterium tuberculosis
- require oxygen for respiration |
|
obligate anaerobes
|
-Treponema paillidum
-is killed by oxygen |
|
binary fission
|
-bacteria split to produce two new identical bacteria
- copy chromosomes -attached to cell -grows layer |
|
conjugation
|
-bacteria hook together and transfer a piece of DNA(plasmid) which results in a new strain.
|
|
endospore
|
-tiny structure that contains bacteria DNA, resists tough outer problems
|
|
environmental benefits
|
-nitrogen fixation
-recycling of nutrients -food and medicines |
|
bacterial diseases
|
strep throat
- inhale or ingest through mouth - fever, sore throat, swollen neck, glands -antibiotic tuberculosis -inhale -fatigue, fever, night sweats, cough, weight loss, chest pain -antibiotic Tetanus -puncture wound -stiff jaw, muscle spasms, paralysis -open and clean wound, antibiotic;give antitoxin Lyme disease -bite of infected tick -rash at site of bite, chills -antibiotic Dental cavities -bacteria in mouth -destruction of tooth enamel, toothache -remove and fill the destroyed area Diphtheria -inhale or close contact -sore throat, fever -vaccination to prevent, antibiotics |
|
pGLO
|
-plasmid containing the GFP sequence & ampicillin resistance genes, which codes for beta-lactamase
|
|
protista
|
-this Kingdom contains the most diverse organisms of all the kingdoms
-the characteristic that all share is that they all are eukaryotes and carry out their metabolic processes inside their membrane-bound organelles. |
|
Ciliophora
|
-use the cilia that cover their bodies to move
-live in every kind of aquatic habitat -many structures found in these cells may work together to perform just one important life function. |
|
Zoomastiginia
|
-consists of protists called flagellates, which have one or more flagella
-flagellated protists move by whipping their flagella from side to side - some are parasites that cause disease in animals, such as African sleeping sickness in humans. others are helpful |
|
Sporozoa
|
-often called sporozoans because most produce spores
- a spore is a reproductive cell that forms without fertilization and produces a new organism -all sporozoans are parasites |
|
Euglenophyta
|
-unicellular, aquatic protists that have both plant and animal characteristics.
-lack a cell wall made of cellulose -have a flexible pellicle made of protein that surrounds the cell membrane. |
|
Dinoflagellata
|
-have cell walls that are composed of thick cellulose plates
-contain chlorophyll, carotenoids, and red pigments -several species produce toxins. |
|
Rhodophyta
|
-mostly unicelllular marine seaweeds
-body of a seaweed is called a thallus and lacks roots, stems, or leaves - red algae also contain photosynthetic pigments called phycobilins which absorb green, violet, and blue light. |
|
cilia
|
-short, numerous, hairlike projections composed of pairs of microtubules; frequently aid in locomotion
|
|
flagella
|
-long projections composed of microtubules; found on some cell surfaces; they help propel cells and organisms by a whiplike motion
|
|
contractile vacuole
|
-because a paramecium lives in a freshwater, hypotonic environment, water constantly enters its by osmosis. A pair of contractile vacuoles pump out the excess water.
|
|
pseudopodia
|
-in protozoans, cytoplasm-containing extensions of the the plasma membrane; aid in locomotion and feeding
|
|
plasmodium
|
-in plasmodial slime molds, the mass of cytoplasm that contains many diploid nuclei but no cell walls or membranes
|
|
diatom
|
-members of the phylum bacillariophyta, are unicellular photosynthetic organisms with shells composed of silica
-make up a large component of the phytoplankton population in both marine and freshwater ecosystems. |
|
phytoplankton
|
-photosynthesizing unicellular
-produce most of the oxygen used on Earth -have no roots, stems, or leaves |
|
paramecium
|
-uses its cilia, oral groove, gullet, and food vacuoles in the process of digestion.
-usually reproduces asexually by dividing crosswise and seaparating into two daughter cells. |
|
amoeba
|
-have no cell walls
-form pseudopodia to move and feed -most amoebas live in salt water. |
|
Chlorophyta
|
-green algae
-major pigment is chlorophyll -can be unicellular, colonial, or multicellular in organization -most live in freshwater |
|
Rhizopoda
|
-includes hundreds of species of amoebas and amoebalike organisms
|