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557 Cards in this Set
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Driving force behind the rock cycle
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plate tectonics
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release of volatiles due to thermal energy
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pore-fluid pressure
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enforced in a certain direction due to orogenesis, responsible for foliation
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directed pressure
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The texture of a rock that cooled slowly
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coarse grained
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gravel, sand and silt are produced by this type of weathering (mechanical/chemical)
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chemical
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process that thrusts crust back under the surface to feed the continuous rock cycle
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plate subduction
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large band of metamorphic activity near a lot of mountain building activity
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regional metamorphism
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process of mountain building from crust folding and faulting
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orogenesis
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when native rock comes in contact with high-heat igneous intrusions of magma
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Contact metamorphism
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Experience rapid cooling (extrusive or intrusive)
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extrusive
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in this type of boundary, crust creates mountains and pressure
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convergent
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a component of the rock cycle that helps with erosion and weathering, dissolution of rocks, and carrying sediment
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water
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vital component in melting crust above subduction zones
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water & other volatiles
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this process does not alter the initial chemical composition of rock
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isochemical
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type of changes a rock undergoes for metamorphic (physical or chemical)
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physical
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this element causes component minerals to reorganize or recrystallize with increased density
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heat
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this element can initiate recrystallization thru compression or spot melting at individual grain boundearies
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pressure
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confining pressure created by a load of rocks above a metamorphic rock
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lithostatic pressure
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new oceanic crust is created at this type of boundary
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divergent
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The texture of rapid cooled igneous rock
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obsidian, glassy
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naturally formed inorganic object made of homogenous substances
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rock
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rocks classified according to origin, more favorable and often used
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petrogenesis
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the study of rocks classified by physical characteristics
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petrography
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Experience slower cooling (extrusive or intrusive)
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intrusive
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fine grained clay formed in surface areas of ___ temperatures, such as soil
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low
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produces ion and salt by-products to be deposited as sediment
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chemical weathering
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organic sediments can be made of
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shells of organisms
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rock that will fizz when acid is put on it
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calcium
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consolidation of sediments into solid rock
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lithification
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water and ionic solutions
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connate fluids
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compress particles in sediment and expel connate fluids
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compaction
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precipitated minerals are deposited as a film or moves into pore space
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cementation
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rocks formed from fragments
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clastic
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clastic rocks formed from compaction and cementation of gravels
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conglomerates
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clastic rocks formed of small particles from .0625-2mm in diameter-med particles
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sandstone
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clastic rocks from particles in diameter less than .0625mm
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shale
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almost half of sedimentary rocks are
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shale
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sedimentary rocks formed from byproducts of chemical reactions
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precipitated rock
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minerals rocks created thru evaporations of liquid in a solution. ions precipitate and form crystalline mineral residues
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evaporates
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table salt / evaporite mineral
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halite
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sedimentary rocks made of carbonate compounds, calcite or dolomite
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carbonate rocks
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this mineral often forms due to temperature changes in seawater
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calcite
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carbonate rock containing mostly calcite
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limestone
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if dolomite is main component of carbonate rock it is called
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dolomite or dolostone
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sedimentary rock made from plant and animal organisms (type not examples)
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organic rock
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mineral contained in bones and shells
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calcite
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three popular types of organic rock
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limestone, calcite, coal
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coral reefs are made up of this type of organic sedimentary rock
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limestone
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most abundant organic sedimentary rock
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limestone
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when rocks form usually horizontal layers of sediment of various thickness
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stratification
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when sediment is rapidly expelled into calm body of water
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graded bedding
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stratum thicker than 1 cm
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bed
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stratum less than 1 cm in thickness
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laminae
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repetitive pattern of two layers in seasons like a lower layer of coarse silt and an upper layer of fine-grained silt
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varve
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forms when a rapidly flowing river or stream carrying sediment reaches a basin abruptly
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alluvial fan
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most effective in sediment deposition in regions with little vegetation and sand
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wind
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tides deposit coarse materials (sand gravel) here
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shore zone
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sediment from land (clay/silt) deposited here
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continental shelf
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downward incline from continental shelf to ocean floor
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continental slope
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ocean floor where sediment is deposited
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abyss
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red indicates presence of weathered and eroding fragments of what type of minerals
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iron bearing, oxidizing
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organic rocks are generally this color
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black
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strong water, wind or gravitational forces distinguish themselves in these marks
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ripple marks
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property of grains making up clastic sedimentary rock, shows the distance a sediment traveled before deposition
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roundness
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solid, near-spherical bodies found in sedimentary rock
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concretions
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sediments are described as having good, moderate or poor sorting depending on
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consistency or similarity in particle sizes
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strata in steep inclines rather than horizontal layers
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cross-bedded
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landforms exhibiting cross-bedding
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deltas, sand dunes
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pools of magma surrounded by solid rock
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magma chambers
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magma left below ground during a volcano eruption
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intrusive/plutonic rock
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magma contains a lot of 2 elements
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oxygen silica
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95% of the upper crust made of this type of rock
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igneous
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magmas generated this far below earth surface
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100-300 km
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magma containing a lot of iron, calcium and magnesium. parent materials found beneath OCEAN or CONTINENT crust
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mafic
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magma rich in K, Na, and Si. parent rocks within continental crust
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Felsic
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magma somewhere between felsic and mafic
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intermediate
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ultramafic magma contain large amounts of
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iron magnesium
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minerals with lower melting points will melt (before/after) those with higher melting points
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before
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if partial melting occurs, the resultant magma will only contain minerals with (lower/higher) melting points
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lower
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a catalyst in melting silicate materials (reduces melting point by 200 deg C). can also increase magma generation
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Water
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The opposite of melting
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crystallization
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Higher Melting point corresponds to (faster/slower) crystallization
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faster
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when magma is altered during cooling and crystalization
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magmatic differentiation
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in some magma chambers, material on (top/bottom) is cooler and more felsic
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top
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crystals formed early in cooling are differentiated from remaining magma, they have more ions concentrated in crystals and lower levels of those elements in magma
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crystal fractionation
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magma of original composition is introduced to chamber after crystal fractionation begun
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hybrid magma
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rocks that exhibit two stages of cooling-and crystals of two different sizes.
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porphyritic
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in porphyritic rocks, where do the large well formed crystals form?
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in a deep chamber
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in porphyritic rocks where do small crystals form
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where magma cools quickly toward the top
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gabbro and basalt are examples
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mafic igneous rocks
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granite is a common form of this rock
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felsic igneous
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volcanic complement to plutonic granite. fine grained, glassy, or porphyritic
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rhyolite
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rhyolitic volcanic glass, petrified froth
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pumice
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mafic igneous rock coarse and dark with high levels of ferromagnesian (internally magnetic)
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gabbro
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most common volcanic rock
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basalt
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like pumice, formed from magma with high concentration of gases resulting in vesicles
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basalt
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fractures common in basaltic rocks
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columnar jointing
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rock with mineral composition between gabbro and granite
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intermediate rock
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examples of intermediate rock
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diorite, andesite
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a rock more common than rhyolites but less common than basalts
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andesite
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rocks created by movements of magma near plutonic rock bodies like dikes or batholiths. heat from magma recrystallizes country rock.
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contact metamorphic
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contact metamorphic rock name
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hornfel
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http://geology.com/rocks/pictures/hornfels.jpg
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region where contact metamorphism is possible
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aureole
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aureoles vary in size from
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few cm to 1 m
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contact metamorphic rocks with reoriented mineral grains or as a product of chemical reactions between two or more minerals
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hornfels
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released due to movement of magma near batholiths result in chemical reactions with minerals in country rock
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hydrothermal solutions
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hydrothermal solutions are rich in
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water and magmatic ions
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an example of a hydrothermal metamorphic rock from olivine
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serpentine rocks
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Rocks created from so built up pressure that grinds local rocks and they become recrystallized
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cataclastic metamorphic rocks
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these rocks occur regionally near converging plate boundaries, existing in large shields of crystalline rock. form near batholiths exposed by weathering
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dynamothermal metamorphic rocks
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the temperatures, pressures, and chemically active solutions present are (consistent/variable) in dynamothermal metamorphic rocks
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variable
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___ grade metamorphic rocks are dense and fine grained. formed by gentle dynamothermal at low temps
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low grade
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a common low grade rock composed of recrystallized shale resulting in fine foliation bred during low grade metamorphism
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slate
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___ grade metamorphic rock are relatively coarse and folia regularly spaced
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intermediate grade
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___ grade rock shows bands of alternately light and dark colored minerals. small grains and sometimes plastic deformation from high temps during formation
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high grade
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minerals that are not exposed to direct pressure during metamorphosis
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nonfoliated
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magma travels underground thru cracks in country rocks and creates these type of rocks
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intrusive plutonic
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one reason why underground magma is highly mobile underground
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lower density
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This represents a fault that has both strike-slip and dip-slip components.
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oblique slip (need pic)
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Large bowl shapes made by glaciers
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cirques
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tall mountains in which layers of lava alternate with layers of ash
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composite volcano
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the mechanical breakup of rock caused by the expansion of freezing water in cracks and crevices
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frost wedging
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A fault when the movement of the plates is vertical and opposite. Displacement is in the direction of the inclination
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dip-slip fault (need pic)
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A geological fault in which the upper side appears to have been pushed upward by compression
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reverse fault (need pic)
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a type of fault where rocks on either side move past each other sideways with little up or down motion
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strike-slip fault (need pic)
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The theory that the Earth's outer shell is made up of rigid plate which, throughout history, have slowly moved about on a layer of hot flowing rock, they continue to do so today. These plates move in response to internal forces from deep within the earth, causing them to collide, shear, compress, pull apart, and slide under or over each other.
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plate tectonic theory
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a part of the cell containing DNA and RNA and responsible for growth and reproduction
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nucleus
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The belief that all continents on Earth were originally connected in a single "super continent"
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continental drift theory
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mixed high-grade metamorphic/plutonic origin
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migmatites
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lower melting points than ferromagnesian minerals
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nonferromagnesian minerals
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when mineral components of parent rocks do not foliate when exposed to direct pressure
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nonfoliated metamorphic rock
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metamorphic calcite limestone
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marble
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surface between country rock and intruding pluton
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intrusive contact
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offshoots of magma body able to penetrate the earth's surface, creating a volcano
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apophyses
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plutonic intrusion relatively thin in width compared to near vertical dimensions
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dike
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cutting across existing layers or bodies of rock
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discordant
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running nearly parallel to preexisting layers of rock
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concordant
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often offshoots of dikes, but usu laterally rather than vertically oriented
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sills
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intrusive rock formation when magma solidifies in channel connecting active volcano with magma chamber
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volcanic neck
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concordant pluton like a sill but rounded
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laccolith
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pluton covering more than 100 sq km. no visible bottom.
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batholith
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pluton smaller than 100 sq km
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stock
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any type of intrusive rock that is formed when magma travels through cracks in country rocks
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plutons
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naturally occurring, inorganic solid substance with regular atomic structure and definite homogenous chemical compositions
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mineral
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9 physical characteristics to distinguish minerals
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color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, specific gravity, tenacity, habit,
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mineral whose substance is a valid indicator of its chemical composition
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idiochromatic
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elements with ions that are absorptive of certain light wavelengths giving vivid and distinctive coloration (copper, iron, cobalt)
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chromophores
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color properties due to presence of impurities
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allochromatism
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relative difference in opacity and translucency of a mineral
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luster
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rubbing a crushed mineral on a ceramic plate showing minerals true color and not impurities
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streak
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minerals resistance to scratching
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hardness
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ability of a mineral to split closely spaced parallel planes called cleavage planes
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cleavage
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splits easily and exhibits smooth, unblemished cleavage surfaces
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perfect cleavage
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classifications of mineral cleavage
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good, indistinct, umblemished, perfect
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minerals with imperfect or nonexistent cleavage exhibit breaking or crushing described as
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fracture
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shell like pattern of fracture, concentric rings
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conchoidal
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rough uneven fracture
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irregular fracture
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line of fracture with sharp jagged edges
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hackly fracture
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how much more dense a mineral is than water
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specific gravity
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weight of a specified volume of a mineral divided by an equal volume of water in its densest state
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specific gravity
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the temperature at which water is its densest
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4 deg C
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brittle, malleable, elastic, ductile, sectile - the way a mineral responds to cutting, bending or crushing
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tenacity
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mineral that deforms temporarily but reverts to original state
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elastic
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mineral that will bend rather than break, but not return to original shape
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flexible
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minerals that can be reshaped without fracturing
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malleable
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minerals that can be drawn into thin strands without breaking
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ductile
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minerals that can be sliced into thin sheets but can not withstand the force of a blow
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sectile
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crystal growth pattern of a mineral
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habit
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crystals with equal sides in all directions
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equant
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crystals with long flat areas like knife blades
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bladed
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thin flat sheets that can be peeled or flaked from the original mass
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micaceous
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elongated crystals like pencils
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prismatic
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the actual process when clusters of atoms in a liquid arrange themselves in a solid configuration
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nucleation
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when rate of nucleation is greater than rate of growth
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rapid cooling
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rapid cooling produces this type of crystal with internal regularity but without external faces
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anhedral
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slower cooling produces this type of crystal with well-formed faces
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euhedral
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crystals with intermediate, rounded outlines formed by slower cooling
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subhedral
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ideal type of crystal growth, crystals are formed in separate layers and faces are built up as layers accumulate. occurs slowly and requires high supersaturation
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two-dimensional nucleation
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quick process with continuous growth of a single layer in the form of a spiral
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spiral growth or screw dislocation
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rapid growth of crystal in limited directions
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branching growth
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this will halt favorable growth conditions and cause growth in an unfavorable direction creating dendrites
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heat transfer
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more common than single crystals
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crystal aggregates
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parallel deposits of one mineral on the surface of another. surface atoms exert forces on the atoms of the overgrowing crystal to take the host crystal structure. usu happens between minerals with different chemical compositions
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oriented overgrowth
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type of crystals where atoms rapidly assimilate on the edges rather than the whole face of a crystal. makes deep depressions on the centers of the faces. usu supersaturation at edges
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cavernous crystal
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when impurities are present in material of growing crystal and form an outline of a crystal within a crystal
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phantom crystal
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any chemical and physical changes at or near earth's surface during or after a rock is created, includes lithification but is broader process
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diagenesis
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when minerals intrude the pore space of an organisms skeleton
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permineralization
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dissolution of carcasses leaving an impresion in the rock
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mould fossils or typolites
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footprint or subsurface dwellings that leave an impression in rock
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trace fossils
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outermost layer of earth is this deep
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0-35 km below surface
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crust is composed of these minerals
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basalt granite
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top 8 elements in earth crust
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O Si Al Fe Ca Na K Mg
More than 90% are silicates (made of Si and O and others) |
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mantle is this far below earth surface
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35-2890 km
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separation between mantle and crust 30-70km below continental crust and 6-8 below oceanic
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moho or mohorovicic discontinuity
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rocks in mantle
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periodotite, eclogite
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core of the earth is composed of
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iron and nickel
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depth of core
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2890-6400
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crust and uppermost portion of mantle, a cooling layer
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lithosphere
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oceanic lithosphere is composed of
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mafic basaltic rocks
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soft plastic topmost layer of mantle 100-700 km
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asthenosphere
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the number of major plates
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10 - african, antarctic, australian, eurasian, north american, south american, pacific, cocos, nazca and indian
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plates float atop this layer
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asthenosphere
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theory proposed by alfred wegener in 1915
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continental drift
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another phenomena to support plate tectonics besides continental drift, observed by icelandic fisherman in the 1800s later refined in the 60s and 70s
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seafloor spreading
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final clue to substantiate plate tectonics
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magnetic striping and mid atlantic ridge
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main forces of tectonic motion
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gravity and friction
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the energy that drives tectonic motion and is converted to gravity and friction
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dissipation of heat from mantle up to the asthenosphere
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when plates move due to friction between lithosphere and asthenosphere
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mantle drag
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the actual downward frictional pull on oceanic plates into subduction zones due to convection
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trench suction
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this dimension of the earth remains constant over time
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diameter
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two oceanic plates converge they form
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underwater trench
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two continental plates converge at a destructive boundary, crumple and compress createing
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mid-continent mountain range
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when continental plate converges with an oceanic plate, denser oceanic lithosphere slides beneath continental lithosphere, what results?
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ocean trench on one side, mountain range on other side
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two plates move away from each other they form this type boundary
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divergent or constructive
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in oceanic lithosphere, divergent plates create
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oceanic ridges
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another name for continental crust
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sial
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another name for oceanic crust
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sima
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of sima and sial, which of the two is more uniform in thickness and composition
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sima
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cooled magma aligns itself with the current magnetic orientation during which process
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cooling
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gases in a volcano that increase pressure
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water vapor c02 sulfur dioxide
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these type of eruptions expel gas, ash and rock and affect atmospheric pressure and increase electricity in surrounding air
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explosive eruptions
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usu occur in stratovolcanoes, like explosive but smaller scale
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intermediate eruptions
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eruptions with no explosivity, slow magma flow
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quiet eruptions
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small fissures or fractures that exude lava instead of a volcanic vent, often result in flood lava
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fissure eruptions
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materials expelled from volcano like tuffs or volcanic bombs
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pyroclastic
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measurable movement of a location of earths surface caused by earthquake far away
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teleseism
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suspension of soil particles in water
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liquefaction
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mechanical disturbances that transfer energy
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seismic waves
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can travel through any material (fastest in solid). similar to sound waves. a body wave
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P waves
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can only travel thru solids. body wave
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S waves
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cause more damage than body waves because of low frequency like water waves
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surface waves
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these surface waves make the ground ripple like water
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rayleigh waves
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these surface waves cause shearing of the earth's crust, triangular folding
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love waves
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proof of the moho
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sharp increase in velocity of body waves
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subtypes of this type of weathering are pressure release, exfoliation, freeze-thaw, salt-crystal growth
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mechanical weathering
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a type of weathering when erosion removes materials on top of rocks. as pressure is released or decreased, underlying rocks expand and fracture
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pressure release
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when an area has substantial diurnal temp changes ie. hot in day (expand), cool at night (compact) causes stress on outer layers which then peel
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exfoliation
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a type of weathering when water freezes and expands widening joints or shattering rocks. overall weakens rock
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freeze-thaw
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evaporation of saline solutions in rock leaves behind salt crystals.
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salt-crystal
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when rocks experience chemical changes ie. decomposition or decay due to organic acids
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chemical weathering
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hydration, hydrolosis, oxidation, solution are this type of weathering
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chemical weathering
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salt minerals within the rock, expand and change due to absorption of water (ex on side 3). can cause mechanical fragmenting
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hydration
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anhydrite + h20 > gypsum
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weathering involving a chemical reaction between acidic water and rock forming mineral. breaks rock into new materials (ex on side 3)
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hydrolysis
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feldspar + acid rain>quartz + clay
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weathering that shows discoloration of iron bearing materials when exposed to atmosphere
|
oxidation
|
|
|
weathering process where organic acid interacts with some minerals in rock producing ions that get washed away by erosion (gradual dissolving process)
|
chemical weathering
|
|
|
landform created by weathering and erosion like a cliff or cave
|
erosion landform
|
|
|
a large portion of bedrock detaches and glides out and down (3 side card)
|
glide
|
translational slide
|
|
hydration, hydrolosis, oxidation, solution are this type of weathering
|
chemical weathering
|
|
|
a pretty cohesive mass slides down a concave plane
|
slump
|
rotational slide
|
|
a pile of rocks from a rockfall
|
talus
|
|
|
salt minerals within the rock, expand and change due to absorption of water (ex on side 3). can cause mechanical fragmenting
|
hydration
|
anhydrite + h20 > gypsum
|
|
weathering involving a chemical reaction between acidic water and rock forming mineral. breaks rock into new materials (ex on side 3)
|
hydrolysis
|
feldspar + acid rain>quartz + clay
|
|
these type of mass movements are when internal grains move. there is no clear barrier between the sliding mass and the material underneath
|
flow
|
|
|
weathering that shows discoloration of iron bearing materials when exposed to atmosphere
|
oxidation
|
|
|
weathering process where organic acid interacts with some minerals in rock producing ions that get washed away by erosion (gradual dissolving process)
|
solution
|
|
|
landform created by weathering and erosion like a cliff or cave
|
erosion landform
|
|
|
a large portion of bedrock detaches and glides out and down (3 side card)
|
glide
|
translational slide
|
|
a pretty cohesive mass slides down a concave plane
|
slump
|
rotational slide
|
|
a pile of rocks from a rockfall
|
talus
|
|
|
these type of mass movements are when internal grains move. there is no clear barrier between the sliding mass and the material underneath
|
flow
|
|
|
three type of flows
|
earth, mud, or debris
|
|
|
shallow mass of soil slowly moving downward caused by freeze-thaw or wet-dry cycles
|
creep
|
|
|
intensified form of creep when permafrost prevents absorption of water so the top layer of soil becomes saturated. leads to wrinkled landscape
|
solifluction
|
|
|
wearing of river valley slopes parallel to selves. widening of valley.
|
backwasting
|
|
|
diminish valley slopes thru mass movements of soil and rock
|
downwasting
|
|
|
wide, nearly flat plain of bedrock just above level of erosion
|
peneplain
|
|
|
erosion resistant tip of rock rising abruptly from a peneplain
|
monadnock
|
|
|
load of river that carries suspended load and bed load
|
solid load
|
|
|
does most of erosion to channel bottom and sides
|
bed load
|
|
|
when stream drops sediment due to flooding or interstection
|
stream deposition
|
|
|
horizon layer of dark colored earth
|
A horizon
|
|
|
layer of subsoil that absorbs nutrients from A horizon
|
B horizon
|
|
|
Bottom layer of soil made of rock and parent crust
|
C horizon
|
|
|
leaf litter and organic material a top the soil horizon
|
O horizon
|
|
|
elevation below sea level on topographic map is marked with
|
hatch marks
|
|
|
representation of a skyline viewed horizontally on a map
|
topographic profile
|
|
|
largest unit of geologic time
|
Eons
|
|
|
The order of geologic time units
|
Eon, Era, Period, Epoch, Age
|
Eo, Er, P, Ep, A
alpha 3 letter e, followed by P in middle, then eP, then A the outlier |
|
The two major eons
|
Precambrian, Phanerozoic
|
|
|
The longest eon
|
Precambrian
|
|
|
The eon with the most fossil evidence
|
Phanerozoic (visible life)
|
|
|
Three major eras
|
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, Cenozoic "old, mid and new life"
|
|
|
well sorted particles are usu carried by this means
|
wind
|
|
|
rounded particles are carried by
|
water
|
|
|
this type of weathering occurs in hot and humid climates
|
chemical weathering
|
|
|
this type of weathering occurs in dry cold climates
|
mechanical weathering
|
|
|
Era in which solar system was formed
|
Hadean
|
4.5-3.8 billion
|
|
this era shows earliest microfossils including those using photosynthesis
|
ARCHAEAn era
|
3.8-2.5 billion
|
|
this era shows bacteria, eukaryote, first animals (think trilobites). high levels of oxygen shown in metal oxides soil
|
proterozoic "earlier life"
|
2.5-543 million
|
|
fossil soils
|
paleosoils
|
|
|
About 1/2 of the phanerozoic eon char. by rapid evolution and diversity-multicellular, vertebrates, coal deposits, supercontinent joined, warming and drying of climate. conclude with massive extinction of marine species
|
paleozoic era
|
543-248 million yago
|
|
age of dinosaurs, KT extinction kills all but birds. mammals evolve. flowering plants.
|
mesozoic era
|
248-65 million yago
|
|
Pangea breaks apart
|
Mesozoic>Triassic
|
|
|
first birds, a lot of crocodiles, sharks, rays
|
Jurassic>Mesozoic
|
|
|
first flowering plants
|
Mesozoic>Cretaceous
"chalk" |
|
|
current era dating back 65 million years
oldest fossils of modern species |
cenozoic era
|
|
|
theory that the sun formed of a cloud of dust and gas collapsed by gravity. other particles begin to coalesce and form planetismals
|
nebular hypothesis
|
|
|
all living things evolve from common ancestors over millions of years
|
theory of evolution
|
|
|
changes in natural conditions select stronger organisms for survival
|
natural selection
|
|
|
idea that complex chemicals generated by heat of sun create simple atoms and molecules. simple structures became more organized and ability to reproduce (first cells), mutations caused new cells
|
modern view origin of life
|
|
|
the chemistry of carbon in living things is the same as in non-living things (t/f)
|
false
|
|
|
there are organic compounds found in organisms that are not found in inorganic matter (t/f)
|
true
|
|
|
ability to reproduce
ability to react to stimuli unique organic compounds |
found only in living beings
|
|
|
life emerging from life
|
bio-genesis
|
|
|
life from nonliving matter
|
a-bio-genesis
|
|
|
proved that amino acids could be formed from prebiotic chemical elements
|
miller urey experiment
|
|
|
top 3 domains in life
|
eukaryotes, archaea, eubacteria
|
|
|
genetic coding of organisms
|
biochemical record
|
|
|
resource that can be obtained with current technology, but not economically feasible
|
paramarginal resource
|
|
|
resource that is not profitable-cost to obtain outweighs value of resource
|
submarginal resource
|
|
|
amount of resource that can be recovered with current technology
|
reserve
|
|
|
this part of the rock cycle may result in the the deposition of ore resources
|
igneous
|
|
|
a geological process that can produce natural resources like copper on limestone
|
contact metamorphism
|
|
|
minerals deposited in pockets along water bodies can lead to formation of
|
gold
|
|
|
another process that may lead to ore deposits like iron and nickel that are nonsoluble and cant be evaporated
|
weathering
|
|
|
produced when liquid and gaseous organic materials undergo chemical reactions and then migrate into pore space of sedimented rocks. takes thousands or millions of years to complete
|
crude oil
|
|
|
inhibit the release of infrared photons back into space
|
greenhouse gases
|
|
|
composition of earths atmosphere in the lowest 10 km
|
78% nitrogen 21% oxygen
|
|
|
the beginning of the upper atmosphere
|
10,000km up
|
|
|
The number of stages the atmosphere has been through
|
3
|
|
|
composition of first atmosphere that was dissipated by heat and stellar wind
|
helium, hydrogen, methane, ammonia
|
|
|
created 3.5 billion yrs ago after crust solidified this atmosphere was formed
|
2nd atmosphere
|
|
|
volcanic activity contributed to the second atmosphere in a process called
|
outgassing
|
|
|
a name for the second atmosphere that contained little or no oxygen and high amounts of hydrogen
|
reductive
|
|
|
composition of 2nd atmosphere
|
c02 and h20 vapor. some nitrogen and minute oxygen.
|
|
|
these dissolved into oceans causing acids and rising levels into the atmosphere
|
gases
|
|
|
the ability of organisms to balance oxygen levels in the air
|
oxidative respiration
|
|
|
lowest three layers of the atmosphere
|
troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere
|
|
|
from surface level to 16 km and the densest level in atmosphere. where weather lives
|
troposphere
|
up to 16km
|
|
ozone layer here. temperature increase because of uv absorption. calm and weather free. good for plane flight.
|
stratosphere
|
16-50km above surface
|
|
ozone layer here. temperature increase because of uv absorption. calm and weather free. good for plane flight.
|
stratosphere
|
16-50km above surface
|
|
coldest layer with clouds of ice and where meteors break apart
|
mesosphere
|
50-80km above
|
|
coldest layer with clouds of ice and where meteors break apart
|
mesosphere
|
50-80km above
|
|
clouds of ice
|
noctilucent clouds
|
|
|
clouds of ice
|
noctilucent clouds
|
|
|
uppermost layer of atmosphere. warmest layer. up to 1000 C. high levels of sun energy absorbed
|
thermosphere
|
80-640km above surface
|
|
subdivisions of thermosphere
|
ionosphere exosphere
|
|
|
made of ionized nitrogen and oxygen atoms and free electrons. high levels of uv and xrays enter. where aurorae occur. conductor of electromagnetic waves
|
ionosphere
|
80-550 km
|
|
outermost division where satellites orbit. low density. made of hydrogen and helium
|
exosphere
|
550-10,000 km
|
|
outermost division where satellites orbit. low density. made of hydrogen and helium
|
exosphere
|
550-10,000 km
|
|
region of stratosphere with high concentration of ozone particles formed thru photolysis when UV rays collide with O2 in atmosphere
|
ozone layer
|
|
|
ozone layer here. temperature increase because of uv absorption. calm and weather free. good for plane flight.
|
stratosphere
|
16-50km above surface
|
|
coldest layer with clouds of ice and where meteors break apart
|
mesosphere
|
50-80km above
|
|
clouds of ice
|
noctilucent clouds
|
|
|
subdivisions of thermosphere
|
ionosphere exosphere
|
|
|
outermost division where satellites orbit. low density. made of hydrogen and helium
|
exosphere
|
550-10,000 km
|
|
interaction with these molecules breaks down ozone
|
N, Cl H containing compounds or via thermal energy of sun
|
|
|
the greatest job of ozone molecules in the atmosphere
|
absorb UV rays
|
|
|
where ozone particles form
|
over the equator
|
|
|
uv rays from sun collide with O2 in the atmosphere, break up the O2s, O2s join O to make O3
|
how ozone is created
|
|
|
mechanism by which water evaporates from leaves or stems of plants
|
transpiration
|
|
|
body of air exhibiting consistent temps and levels of moisture throughout
|
air mass
|
|
|
when isobars are closer together the wind is
|
stronger
|
|
|
direction of airflow (in N Hemi) of cyclone low pressure system
|
counter clockwise
|
|
|
direction of airflow (in S Hemi) of high pressure system
|
clockwise
|
|
|
cloudiness, winds, chance of precip, close isobars, could have T in the middle of isobars
|
cyclone/low pressure system
|
|
|
clear, calm conditions, drier air, greater range of temperatures, isobars with H in the middle.
|
high pressure system
|
|
|
Indicated by blue triangles indicating direction the front is moving
|
cold front
|
<img src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/24/500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png/200px-500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png">
|
|
indicated by red semi-circles indicating direction front is heading
|
warm front
|
<img src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/24/500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png/200px-500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png">
|
|
when cold front overtakes warm front. could mean rain or thunderstorms. indicated by circles and triangles on same side, maybe purple, pointing in direction of front
|
occluded front
|
<img src="http://pad1.whstatic.com/images/thumb/2/24/500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png/200px-500px-Weather_fronts.svg_71.png">
|
|
indicates a non-moving boundary between two different air masses. long rainy periods. circles on one side, triangles on other. indicating front is stuck.
|
stationary front
|
|
|
low pressure zone between 30-60 degrees latitude formed when warm and cold air masses converge
|
meterological depression
|
|
|
global wind pattern at the equator
|
calm surface winds
|
|
|
the greater the difference between temperature and dew point, the (lower/higher) relative humidity is
|
lower
|
|
|
when sun, earth moon are in alignment, the difference between high and low tides is
|
large
|
|
|
without oxygen
|
anaerobic
|
|
|
convert F to C and C to F
|
C = 5/9 * (F - 32.0)
|
F = C * 9/5 + 32
|
|
change high voltage energy to low consumable voltage
|
transformer
|
|
|
does nuclear power contribute to acid rain or greenhouse effect?
|
no, just nuke waste
|
|
|
the process of cutting into the stream bed
|
downcutting
|
|
|
erosion occurs on this side of the river where velocity is greater
|
the outside or the banks
|
|
|
deposition occurs on this side of the river where velocity is slower
|
the inside or the bars
|
|
|
High pressure is found in the (poles, tropics)
|
poles
|
|
|
Low pressure is found in (poles, tropics)
|
tropics
|
|
|
Winds that blow most frequently in a particular region (eg westerlies)
|
Prevailing or Trade Winds
|
|
|
Prevailing winds most common in the region from 90 - 60 north latitude
|
polar easterlies
|
|
|
Created when prevailing winds converge with other prevailing winds or air masses
|
wind belts
|
|
|
A windbelt where air coming from tropical areas north and south of the equator come together
|
ITCZ - InterTropical Convergence Zone
|
|
|
causes winds to go counter-clockwise in N Hemi and clockwise in the S Hemi
|
Coriolis force
|
|
|
air pocket that has cooled more than surrounding air and descended to its original position
|
stable
|
|
|
pocket of air that continues to rise because stays warmer than surrounding air
|
unstable
|
|
|
the climate zone around the equator highest solar energy, warm air, low air pressure, rising air and high precipitation describes climate near this area of the earth
|
tropical
|
|
|
the climate zones 30 deg north and south of the equator
|
subtropical mid-latitude
|
|
|
climate of subtropical zone. often find deserts here
|
dry descending air, high air pressure
|
|
|
Climate zone defined by high air pressure, low temps, lack of precipitation
|
polar climate zone
|
|
|
why the polar region has little precipitation
|
air can not evaporate from frozen
|
|
|
humid climates with large precipitation (maritime, continental, temperate)
|
maritime
|
|
|
variations in temp with seasons (maritime, continental, temperate)
|
continental
|
|
|
low variation in average temp (maritime, continental, temperate)
|
temperate
|
|
|
stores higher quantities of heat energy than the atmosphere can hold
|
hydrosphere
|
|
|
ocean current that warms the climates of UK and nw Europe as wind carries across the Atlantic
|
Gulf Stream
|
|
|
variations in earths orbit (precession, wobble of the axis, eccentricities) are due to
|
gravitational attraction
|
|
|
guy who theorized when earth's orbital variations line up and reinforce one another, climate change leads to ice age
|
milankovic
|
|
|
natural electrostatic discharge that produces light and releases electromagnetic radiation
|
lightning
|
|
|
process that separates positive and negative charge carriers within a cloud
|
polarization mechanism
|
|
|
lightning process
|
water and ice particles collide building charge
particles separate (+ up / - down) lightning is area between charges as they separate, negative attract to positive charged objects in ground |
|
|
the direction positive particles travel
|
up
|
|
|
negative particles travel
|
down
|
|
|
noise made by rapid expansion and contraction of air due to heat energy
|
thunder
|
|
|
when heating on earths surface causes large amounts of air to rise in an unstable atmosphere
|
thunderstorm
|
|
|
hurricane requires oceanic water to be at least this temp
|
29 C
|
|
|
conditions for hurricane
|
warm water, general wind pattern disruption, coriolis effect
|
|
|
months when easterly waves appear in the trade winds
|
june to november
|
|
|
unusual warming of surface water near the equatorial coast of s. america
|
el nino
|
|
|
minerals lack crystalline center
|
mineraloids
|
|
|
a way to observe a mineral's true color
|
streak test on unglazed porcelain
|
|
|
sulfate
|
SO 2-
|
|
|
sulfide
|
S
|
|
|
phosphate
|
PO3-
|
|
|
composed of one metal and one halogen
|
halide
|
|
|
minerals form on seafloor (includes calcite, siderite, aragonite, dolomite)
|
carbonates
|
|
|
lithification leads to what kind of rock
|
sedimentary
|
|
|
A key element necessary for lithification, this is squeezed from compressed materials, forming a chemical cement that holds the sedimentary rock in place
|
water
|
|
|
Rocks found on this part of Bowen's reaction series weather more quickly than rocks on the other side of the spectrum
|
top
|
|
|
This end of the Bowen reaction series is made from rocks that formed at lower temperatures and are more stable and less susceptible to weathering
|
low
|
|
|
quartzite, slate, marble, gneiss,
|
metamorphic
|
|
|
granite, gabbro, basalt, rhyolite
|
igneous
|
|
|
limestone, shale, sandstone
|
sedimentary
|
|
|
in fault-block mountains, sections that are lifted by tensional forces
|
horst
|
|
|
in fault block mountains, sections that are lowered in elevation
|
graben
|
|
|
Produces the earths magnetic field
|
Dynamo effect
|
|
|
The theory that the Earth's rotation combined with the convection of metals in the Earth's core produce electric currents. These currents flow thru the existing magnetic field, producing a second magnetic field that reinforces the primary field and is then self-sustaining
|
dynamo effect
|
|
|
Proposer of continental drift and Pangea
|
Alfred Wegener
|
|
|
transport air from one region to another
|
advection
|
|
|
regions with continental climates are found where
|
interior of large landmasses
|
|
|
low precipitation and large seasonal temperature variations
|
continental climate
|
|
|
ocean salinity
|
34-35 ppt or 200 ppm
|
|
|
deepest part of ocean
|
10,000 below sea level
|
|
|
seamount with flattened top
|
guyot
|
|
|
currents driven by temperature and density variation
|
subsurface
|
|
|
currents driven by wind
|
surface
|
|
|
when free (unfixed) objects (such as water) move over a rotating surface (such as the earth)
|
coriolis effect
|
|
|
direction of water from poles to equator
|
westward
|
|
|
direction of water from equator to poles
|
eastward
|
|
|
North fork of Gulf Stream goes to
|
Europe
|
|
|
South fork of Gulf Stream goes to
|
West Africa
|
|
|
The shedding of ice and snow as it melts, evaporates, sublimes and gets blown away.
|
ablation
|
|
|
extinction that took out non-avian dinosaurs
|
Cretaceous Tertiary
|
65.5 million years ago
Mesozoic era |
|
most recent of the 5 extinction eras
|
Cretaceous Tertiary
|
|
|
most severe extinction event
|
permian triassic event
|
96% of all marine 70% all terrestrial vertebrate
|
|
the assumption that we dont have a different view of the universe from our vantage point than anywhere else in the universe
|
Cosmological principle
|
|
|
uniformity in all orientations
|
isotropy - one ness
|
|
|
do galaxies contain dark matter
|
yes
|
|
|
dwarf galaxy has as FEW as
|
10 million stars
|
|
|
clusters and superclusters are made of
|
galaxies
|
|
|
physical universe is thought to be composed of these walls of superclusters, clusters and galaxies surrounding bubble like voides
|
filaments
|
|
|
another name for filaments
|
walls
|
|
|
HR diagram compares these two characteristics
|
temperature and luminosity
|
|
|
main sequence stars line goes what way
|
nw to se
|
|
|
redshift of galaxies, measurements in cosmic background radiation, and quasars and galaxies all support this theory
|
Big Bang
|
|
|
The parallax of one arcsecond
|
parsecond
|
|
|
outward pressure exerted by an object is too weak to resist the objects own gravity
|
gravitational collapse
|
|
|
cannot exchange heat, work, or matter with surrounding environment
|
isolated system
|
|
|
can exchange heat, work and matter with surrounding environment
|
open system
|
|
|
can exchange energy (heat and work) but not matter with surrounding environment
|
closed thermodynamic system
|
|
|
formula for Kinetic Energy
|
1/2 mv2
|
|
|
formula for Potential Energy
|
mgh
|
|
|
energy can neither be created nor destroyed
|
1st law thermodynamics
|
|
|
0th law of thermodynamics
|
thermodynamic equilibrium -
|
if 2 systems equal to a 3rd, they are equal to each other
|
|
2nd 3rd laws of thermodynamics discuss
|
entropy
|
|
|
uniformitarianism theorist
|
Hutton
|
add lauren hutton in pants looking all geologisty
|
|
area in which runoff moves toward a body of water usu bounded by hills and mountains
|
watershed
|
|
|
upper boundary of the region where groundwater moves (not level)
|
water table
|
|
|
low elevation streams getting extra water from the water table are called (common in humid areas)
|
effluent
|
|
|
streams that contribute to underwater supply of water. usu found in arid regions
|
influent
|
|
|
area below water table named because pores of rocks are filled to capacity with water
|
saturated zone
|
|
|
body of water with detectable current
|
river
|
|
|
snow thaws and subsequently freezes again creating
|
neve / firn
|
|
|
a collection of compacted neves over a long period of time
|
glacier
|
|
|
when bottom of a glacier detaches from rock and moves downward rapidly
|
glacial surge
|
|
|
bottom of a glacier melts and sliding on the surface where it rests leaving polished and scratched surface
|
basal slip
|
|
|
when pressure of upper layers causes ice crystals in lower parts of glacier to become plastic and flow
|
plastic flow
|
|
|
form on valley or montain slopes with summits above the snow line. move by gravity in a predefined pathway eroding land
|
alpine glaciers
|
|
|
the type of glacial erosion consisting of wearing the ground under the base of the glacier
|
glacial abrasion
|
|
|
the type of glacial erosion that pries rocks from surface
|
glacial quarrying
|
|
|
large tongue shaped mass of rock and ice behaving much like a glacier forming on a slope in a valley and travels slowly
|
rock glacier
|
|
|
deep valleys made by alpine glaciers that sit partially below sea level
|
fjord
|
|
|
lakes created by alpine glaciers due to uneven erosion
|
tarns
|
|
|
number of major ice ages
|
4
|
|
|
3 possible causes of ice ages
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mountains in polar positions blocking sunlight, changes in atmosphere c02 levels, earth axis and precession
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coasts that are rising
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emergent coasts
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a sinking coast, or sea level is rising relative to coast, usu resulting in a bay (embayed)
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submerged coast
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area below the water table consisting of 3 sublayers
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aeration, vardose
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adhesive intermolecular forces are stronger between liquid and solid of the tube than they are between liquid and itself
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capillary action
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percentage of rock occupied by empty space
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porosity
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ability of rock to transmit water through
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permeability
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layer of rock or other material (sand/silt) thru which groundwater travels laterally between points where deposited
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aquifer
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an aquifer bounded from above by a layer of impermeable material
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confined
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an aquifer with a water table as its upper boundary usu found above a confined aquifer
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unconfined
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layer of impermeable material in above a confined aquifer, could even be a saturated layer.
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aquiclude
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measurement of relative displacement of structural surfaces along a fault
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slip
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area of transform fault created by inconsistent rates of seafloor spreading
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fracture zone
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refers to strength of earthquake or strain energy released
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magnitude
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log value of magnitude is richter
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effects of earthquake on particular area, subjective
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intensity
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Mercalli scale
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layers of atmosphere
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Tr, S, M, Th,
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changes in energy emitted from sun
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solar variation
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made of h and he ions in the form of plasma escaped from suns surface because of high levels of therm energy
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solar wind
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amount of time for a reference star to cross the meridian
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sidereal day
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24 hour period
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mean solar day
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balance of gravitational force and pressure produced by hot gases
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hydrostatic equilibrium
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surface of sun visible from earth
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photosphere - light sphere
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layer outside and hotter than photosphere
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chronosphere
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look like sunrays best visible with xray wavelenghts
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corona
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minimum distance to sun on orbit
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perihelion (147 km)
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max distance from sun on orbit
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aphelion (152 km)
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when sun appears to be directly overhead (zenith) at 12pm
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summer solstice
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uly 21
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when sun is oriented directly with the south pole, sun is lowest point on horizon
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winter solstice
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dec 22
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suns apparent path across sky that crosses the earths equatorial plane twice a year
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ecliptic
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when north pole is at a 90 degree angle to the line connecting earth and sun
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equinox
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relative measurement of moon to earth
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1% of mass, 1/4 the radius
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moons composition
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crust over loose rocks and gravel, then a mantle with a solid lithosphere and semiliquid asthenosphere, then a core (less dense than earth) . made up of refractory elements, low in heavy elements
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model of moon origin that moon is a piece that split off during formation
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fission model
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model where moon formed elsewhere and was captured by earths gravity
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capture model
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earth and moon formed during same period of time from same material
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double impact model
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during new moon when moon is in same direction as sun
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in conjunction
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high density, atmosphere of heavy elements CO2, N and H2O, gravitational field, magnetic fields, prob plate teconics (maybe not venus)
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terrestrial planets
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celestial bodies center of mass, like that which earth and moon revolve
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barycenter
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smallest interior planet with density close to earth, wide temperature variations, internal activity has ceased, craters
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mercury
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comparable to earth in mass and density, brightest planet, c02 with trace water and co, s, n acidic atmos, volcanic activity, perhaps past plate tectonics
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venus
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internal metallic core, mantle rich in olivine and iron oxide, high levels of past volcanos, largest known volcano, basins ridges plateaus, erosion canyons and canals, water may have existed, biochemical evolution perhaps
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Mars
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ice and rock cores, primary atmosphere of H and He, no solid surface
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giant planets
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has a layer of metallic hydrogen
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jupiter
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has a convective atmosphere of H and He
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jupiter
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hydrogen mantle enriched by helium surrounded by a differeniation zone and a H atmosphere
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saturn
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planets with rich methane layers and ionic materials
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uranus neptune
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the only gas giant with no evidence of internal activity
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uranus
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which gas planets have rings?
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all
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flat discs of fragmented material orbiting just next to its planet; satellite planets may be embedded in them
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planetary rings
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jupiter 4 largest satellites
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io, ganymede, europa, callisto
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Jupiter's satellite that is currently volcanically active (only one other than earth)
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Io
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Saturns largest satellite
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Titan
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Two satellites with an atmosphere
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Titan (Saturn) and Triton (Neptune)
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double-planet twin of Pluto
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Charon
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each planet moves in an elliptical path and that they follow the sun as their focal point
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kepler's first law of planetary motion
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straight line between a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal time ie. planets move quickest when closer to the sun, vice versa
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kepler's second law of planetary motion
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the further a planet is from the Sun, the longer its orbital period will be
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Kepler's 3rd law of planetary motion
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3 stellar properties
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brightness, position, spectra
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fixed intensity ratio between each of the 6 magnitudes (star property)
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brightness
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two stars that orbit each other; about 50% the stars in the sky are of this type
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binary stars
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compares star temperature v. luminosity
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H-R Diagram
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low mass stars become this in their late stages
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white dwarfs
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high mass stars become this in their late stages
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supernovae
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this is formed from a collapsing interstellar cloud
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protostar
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hydrogen burning through fusion
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nucleosynthesis
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the phase when a star runs out of hydrogen and it begins to burn helium
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red giant
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after the red giant phase, gravity takes over, shrinking the star and it becomes
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white dwarf that burns to black dwarf
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if a star is high mass, its stage after the red giant phase
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supernova
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a supernova that has collapsed under pressure
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pulsar > black hole
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small solid fragment in solar system
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meteoroid
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meteoroid that has entered earths atmosphere
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meteor
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meteors that hit the ground
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meterorite
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small solid planet that orbits the sun
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asteroid
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placement of asteroid belt
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between jupiter and mars
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asteroids between earth and sun
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atens
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asteroids with orbit like earth
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apollos
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the space between planets and stars popualated by comets, asteroids, meteroids
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interstellar, interplanetary medium
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force of gravity operates as an attractive force between all bodies in universe
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newtons universal law of gravitation
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