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131 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is the catabolism of large food molecules into smaller and smaller molecules? |
Digestion |
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Polymer --> Dimer --> ? |
Monomer |
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Which 3 organs secrete enzymes and other fluids into the small intestine to finish digestion? |
Liver, gallbladder, pancreas |
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What is the order in which food travels through you? |
Mouth --> Esophagus --> Stomach --> Small intestine --> Large intestine --> Rectum |
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Which polysaccharide is not digested? |
Cellulose (Beta glucose polymer for structure in plants, this is what fiber is) |
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The mouth contains what enzyme for breaking down starch? |
Salivary amylase |
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The stomach contains what enzyme for breaking down proteins? |
Pepsin |
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The mouth, esophagus, and stomach all have what kind of digestion? |
Mechanical (physically crushing stuff) |
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What is the breakdown of food macromolecules into monomers in the digestive system tube called? |
Digestion |
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What is the transfer of monomer nutrients from the digestive system tube to the bloodstream called? |
Absorption |
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Which 2 very important processes happen in the small intestine? |
1) finish digestion of food into monomers using a variety of enzymes, 2) absorb monomers into bloodstream out of the digestive system |
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What are the 5 layers of the small intestine, from outside to in? |
Longitudinal muscle, circular muscle, mucosa, epithelium, lumen |
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True or false: The epithelium is a single cell thick. |
True |
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What does circular muscle contraction do to the small intestine? |
It makes the small intestine segment thinner. |
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What does longitudinal muscle contraction do the the small intestine? |
It makes the small intestine segment shorter. |
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What are the three enzymes secreted by the pancreas into the lumen and what do they do? |
1) pancreatic amylase: breaks down starch into maltose, 2) pancreatic lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and other monomers, 3) pancreatic endopeptidase: breaks down proteins into amino acids |
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What are the finger-like projections of the mucosa layer called? |
Villi |
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True or false: each villus is super specialized to increase how many nutrients can be absorbed. |
True |
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How does the form of the small intestine help its function? |
Many thin villi increase surface area; Epithelium is one cell thick for short distance to blood vessels; Many blood vessels for increased bloodflow; Microvilli on each cell to further increase surface area; Many membrane proteins, channels for diffusion; pumps for active transport; Mitochondria for ATP for active transport; Lacteal in the middle to transport lipids |
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What is the first step in the journey of the starch molecule? |
Starch is broken down into the disaccharide maltose by pancreatic amylase |
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What is the second step in the journey of the starch molecule? |
Maltose is broken down into glucose by the brush-border enzyme maltase in the small intestine wall |
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What is the third step in the journey of the starch molecule? |
Glucose is co-transported into the epithelium cells with sodium |
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What is the fourth step in the journey of the starch molecule? |
Glucose then diffuses through the mucosa layer out of a channel protein into the surrounding blood vessels and taken to the liver |
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What is the fifth (and final) step in the journey of the starch molecule? |
The liver can then turn glucose into glycogen for storage if it's not needed |
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Who is "the blood guy"? |
William Harvey |
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What did Harvey discover about how blood flow works? |
The same blood travels in a double circulation, it is not made and consumed; one circulation goes from heart to lungs to heart, the other goes from heart to body to heart; Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood towards the heart |
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Where does blood go from the heart? |
To the arteries |
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What is the function of arteries? |
To carry blood away from the heart |
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What is the structure of arteries? |
Thick walls of elastic fibers to withstand high pressure of pulses of bloodflow; thick circular muscle to help pump blood through; Thin lumen to maintain high pressure |
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Where does blood go from the lungs or body? |
To the veins |
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What is the function of veins? |
To carry blood toward the heart |
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What is the structure of veins? |
Thin walls because blood is under low pressure; Thin walls can be pressed flat by nearby muscles to help pump blood forward; wide lumen for slow and steady blood flow; have valves to prevent backflow of blood |
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True or false: nutrients and waste products cannot diffuse across veins or arteries. |
True |
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Arteries branch out into what kind of blood vessel? |
Capillaries |
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Where do cells exchange nutrients and waste products with the blood stream? |
Capillaries |
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What is the function of capillaries? |
Exchange waste and nutrients with body tissues |
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What is the structure of capillaries? |
Smallest wall possible- one cell thick for smallest diffusion distance; pores and membrane proteins make them permeable for exchange; many small capillaries for large surface area |
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What are the 4 chambers of the heart? |
Right atrium, left atrium, right ventricle, left ventricle |
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True or false: ventricles recieve blood from veins. |
False; atria recieve blood from veins |
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True or false: atria pump blood to arteries. |
False; ventricles pump blood to arteries. |
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The right side of the heart pumps blood to what? |
the lungs |
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The left side of the heart pumps blood to what? |
The body |
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How many valves are there in the heart? |
4 (one for the exit of each chamber) |
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What is between the atria and the ventricles? |
The atrioventricular valves |
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What is at the exit of the ventricles into the arteries? |
The semilunar valves |
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All blood from everywhere in the body collects into the biggest veins, which are called what? |
The vena cava |
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Where does the vena cava dump blood? |
Into the right atrium |
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From the right ventricle, the blood enters what? |
The pulmonary artery |
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What is the only artery that carries deoxygenated blood? |
The pulmonary artery |
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All blood from the lungs enters what? |
The pulmonary veins |
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What are the only veins that carry oxygenated blood? |
The pulmonary veins |
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Where do the pulmonary veins dump blood? |
The left atrium |
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Where does blood travel from the left ventricle? |
Everywhere in the body |
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What is the biggest artery in the body and where does it come from? |
The aorta, it comes from the left ventricle |
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True or false: the heart requires external signals to beat. |
False; the heart does not require external signals to beat |
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What does myogenic mean? |
It means it can generate its own muscle contraction |
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True or false: cardiac muscle is myogenic. |
True |
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What is the sinoatrial node? |
A group of special cardiac muscle cells in the right atrium that sends out an electrical signal, starting contraction of all heart muscle cells |
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Where does the signal of the sinoatrial node go first? |
To the atria first, then to the ventricles. This causes the left and right atria to contract first, then the left and right ventricles |
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What is the sinoatrial node called and why? |
It is called the pacemaker because it controls the pace of the heartbeat |
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What are two ways the pace of the heartbeat can be altered? |
A nerve from the medulla of the brain can speed it up, another nerve from the medulla can slow it down; The hormone epinephrine (aka adrenaline) increases the rate |
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What are coronary arteries? |
Small arteries on the surface of the heart that provide nutrients to cardiac tissue and take away waste products |
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What is the first step of a heart attack? |
Cholesterol plaques build up in coronary arteries |
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What is the second step of a heart attack? |
A plaque ruptures |
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What is the third step of a heart attack? |
A blood clot forms to contain the rupture. This clot occludes the coronary artery. |
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What is the fourth (and final) step of a heart attack? |
Heart muscle cells die from lack of nutrients. This is the heart attack. |
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Bloodflow occurs by what type of pressure? |
Positive pressure |
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True or False: Blood is pushed through by contraction of the heart, increasing pressure on the blood and pushing it through |
True |
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Which chamber is the strongest and has the thickest walls and why? |
The left ventricle pumps blood the farthest (all around the body) so it has the thickest walls and is the strongest |
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The _____ recieves blood immediately from the left ventricle so it is the blood vessel that has to withstand the highest pressure |
aorta |
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What is a pathogen? |
Something that causes disease (virus, bacteria, etc.) |
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What is your body's first line of defence against pathogens? |
The skin and mucous membranes |
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Why are mucous membranes good at defending your body against pathogens? |
Sticky, unfavorable pH, lysozyme, natural organisms |
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Why is skin good at defending your body against pathogens? |
Continuous, many layers, tough, dry, unfavorable pH, lysozyme, natural organisms |
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How do pathogens gain entry into the body? |
Cuts, swallowing, breathing in, bodily fluids, blood to blood contact |
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To clot blood and stop bleeding, what must happen? |
The soluble protein fibrinogen must be activated into insoluble fibrin, which forms a web that physically blocks bleeding |
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What is the first thing that happens after the skin gets cut? |
Platelets (anucleate red blood cells) release clotting factors |
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What is the second thing that happens after the skin gets cut? |
Clotting factors turn prothrombin into thrombin |
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What is the third step that happens after the skin gets cut? |
Thrombin turns fibrinogen into fibrin |
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What are leukocytes? |
White blood cells that protect the body against disease |
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What are phagocytes? |
Non-specific leukocytes/white blood cells, form body's 2nd line of defence |
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What are lymphocytes? |
Specific white blood cells, form 3rd and final line of defence |
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__________ ingest pathogens and destroy with lysosomes |
Phagocytes |
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True or false: Lymphocytes produce only one type of antibody to fight a specific pathogen |
True |
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What is an antibody? |
A protein used to inactivate or destroy a pathogen |
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What is an antigen? |
Anything that generates an antibody response |
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What is an allergen? |
A non-pathogenic molecule that is antigenic |
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What happens in the first step of lymphocyte response? |
Challenge: an antigen penetrates the skin |
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What happens during the second step of lymphocyte response? |
Clonal selection: The antigen must interact with its specific lymphocyte to begin the antibody response |
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What happens during the third step of lymphocyte response? |
Proliferation: The lymphocyte divides over and over |
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What happens during the fourth step of lymphocyte response? |
Anti-body production: The lymphocyte clones, produces many antibodies and destroys the infection |
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What happens during the fifth step of lymphocyte response? |
Memory cell formation: most of the clones die but many remain as memory cells to allow for a quicker response next infection. You are now immune |
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What are anti-biotics? |
Man-made molecules that disrupt prokaryotic pathways |
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True or False: Antibiotics work on both bacteria and viruses. |
False: antibiotics only work on bacteria |
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Why don't antibiotics work on viruses? |
Antibiotics do not work on viruses because viruses hijack your eukaryotic pathways, they don't have their own metabolism |
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What was the first antibiotic? |
Penicillin |
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Who were the scientists that discovered how to purify and isolate penicillin from the fungus that makes it? |
Florey and Chain |
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What was Florey and Chain's experiment? |
They infect mice with strept and find that those treated with penicillin survive while those without it die |
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What does HIV stand for? |
Human immunodeficiency virus |
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What does the HIV attack? |
Lymphocytes (leukocytes, more generally) |
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What happens after you have HIV for a while? (What condition do you acquire?) |
You don't have enough lymphocytes to make antibodies and fight off other stuff. This condition is called AIDS. |
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What does AIDS stand for? |
Acquired Immunodeficiency symndrome |
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Can you die of AIDS? |
No, you die of an opportunistic infection |
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List three ways that HIV can be transmitted. |
Blood-blood contact; Sexual intercourse; Childbirth |
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What is ventilation? |
Breathing |
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Where does all gas exchange occur? |
Between the alveoli and adjacent capillaries |
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What is the path of airflow (starting from the mouth)? |
Mouth --> trachea --> bronchi --> bronchioles --> alveoli |
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What diffuses into the alveoli and what diffuses into the bloodstream? |
CO2 diffuses into the alveoli, O2 diffuses into the bloodstream |
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What are alveoli? |
Little sacs at the end of the bronchioles |
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How are the alveoli specialized for exchange? |
Many small alveoli for increased surface area; Walls of alveoli are one cell thick for short diffusion pathway; moist to prevent rubbing and adhering; Many capillaries for bloodflow |
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What are alveoli bordered by? |
Type 1 pneumocytes |
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What are type 1 pneumocytes kept moist by? |
Type 2 pneumocytes |
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What is a surfactant? |
A compound that lowers surface tension, preventing rubbing and sticking |
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What are type 2 pneumocytes? |
Cells of the lungs that secrete a surfactant to keep alveoli moist |
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Muscles work in ____________ pairs. |
Antagonistic |
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What is antagonistic muscle action? |
Some muscles cause movement in one direction, other muscles cause movement in the opposite direction |
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What is expiration? |
Breathing out |
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What does the thorax do when you expire? |
Moves down and in |
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What happens to the volume and pressure of your lungs when you expire? |
Volume of lungs decreases --> pressure of lungs increases and pushes air out |
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What is inspiration? |
Breathing in |
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What does the thorax do when you inspire? |
It moves up and out |
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What happens to the volume and pressure of your lungs when you inspire? |
Volume of lungs increases --> Pressure of lungs decreases and sucks air in |
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What are the 4 muscles involved in breathing? |
Diaphragm, Internal intercostal muscles, external intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles |
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What happens to the 4 muscles involved in breathing when you inspire? |
Diaphragm contracts, pulling lungs down, internal intercostal muscles relax, external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs up and out, abs relax to allow diaphragm to travel down |
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What happens to the 4 muscles involved in breathing when you expire? |
Diaphragm relaxes, internal intercostal muscles contract pulling ribs in and down, external intercostal muscles relax, abs contract to push diaphragm back up |
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What is lung cancer? |
Uncontrolled cell division of the cells in the lungs |
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What are the causes of lung cancer? |
Cigarette smoking, asbestos, radon gas |
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What are the consequences of lung cancer? |
Coughing, chest pain, infections, metastasis can spread cancer elsewhere |
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What is emphysema? |
Emphysema occurs when alveoli are destroyed, stretched, and lose elasticity. Alveoli appear damaged and wrinkled, with large spaces between them |
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What are the causes of emphysema? |
Cigarette smoking, second-hand smoke, airborne toxins |
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What are the consequences of emphysema? |
Shortness of breath, fatigue |