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106 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the 3 dimensions of motivation? |
Direction, Intensity, Persistence |
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What is "time on task"? |
Amount of time that students are actively engaged in a learning activity |
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Situation motivation is a phenomenon in which.... |
...aspects of the immediate environment enhance motivation to learn particular things or behave in particular ways |
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According to trait theories, what play a significant role in motivation? What additionally exist in learners' motives? |
1. Relatively enduring characteristics and personality traits 2.Significant individual differences exist in learners' motives |
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According to behaviourist theories, motivation is the result of what? Define this. Hint ...internal |
Drives : internal states caused by a lack of something necessary for optimal functioning |
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Why do learners intentionally learn? According to behaviourists. |
In order to achieve certain end results (reward and absence of punishment) |
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According to the humanist perspective, learners have a tremendous what? They strive to ...? What is this contingent on? |
Tremendous potential for psychological growth. Strive to fulfil potential . Contingent on a caring a supportive environment |
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What did humanism arise largely in reaction to? |
The behaviourist environment-driven portrait of human motivation |
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Which two factors are individuals motivated by according to social cognitive theories? |
1. Consequences that follow their own behaviours 2. Consequences that follow other people's behaviours |
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What is self-determination? Part of which school of theories? |
Self determination: individuals believe that they have some control and choice in their activities Cognitive theories |
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According to cognitive theories, which factors affect the learners' inclination to engage/not engage in particular tasks/activities? |
Learners' perceptions of themselves, of various topics, and of the world at large |
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Define extrinsic motivation. What is it unrelated to? |
Motivation resulting from factors external to the individual. Unrelated to the task being performed. |
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Define intrinsic motivation. What is it inherent in? |
Motivation resulting from internal personal characteristics or inherent in the task being performed |
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Flow is an intense form of what? What does it involve? |
Intense form of intrinsic motivation Involves complete absorption in and concentration on a challenging activity. |
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What is the 'need for arousal' ? |
Ongoing need for either physical or cognitive stimulation |
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What is the 'need for competence'? |
A basic need to believe that one can deal effectively with one's overall environment |
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What is self worth a general belief about? |
General belief about the extent to which one is a good, capable individual |
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What does self-handicapping undermine? What does it protect? |
Behaviour that undermines one's own success as a way of protecting self-worth during potential difficult tasks |
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Examples of self-handicapping? |
Reducing effort, Setting unattainably high goals, Taking on too much , Procrastinating, Cheating, Alcohol/drugs |
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On the surface, the concepts of competence and self-worth are similar to which other concept? |
Self-efficacy |
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According to social cognitive theorists, what is the difference self-efficacy vs. competence and self worth? |
Competence, self-worth = basic human needs Self efficacy is NOT an essential driving force (but it's a good thing) |
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Students' confidence about ability to handle day to day tasks (self-efficacy) is an important variable influencing motivation. Specifically which factor? |
Intrinsic motivation |
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List 3 ways to enhance students' sense of competence and self-worth |
1. Help students achieve success (especially challenging tasks) 2. Give student concrete mechanisms through which they can track progress over time 3. Minimise competitions and other situations in which students might judge themselves unfavourably in comparison with peers |
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What is the 'need for self-determination'? |
Basic need to believe that one has some autonomy and control regarding the course of one's life |
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Students with a sense of self-determination are more ... , tend to ...., more likely ... |
1. More intrinsically motivated 2. Tend to achieve higher grades 3. More likely to complete high school education |
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List 5 ways of enhancing students' sense of self-determination |
1. Provide opportunities for independent work and decision making 2. Present rules and instructions in an informational rather than controlling manner 3. Give students opportunities to make choices 4. Evaluate students' performance in a non controlling way 5. Be selective about when and how you use extrinsic reinforcers |
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What is the 'need for relatedness'? |
The fundamental need to feel socially connected and to secure the love and respect of others |
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What are the 5 needs in Maslow's hierarchy? |
1. Physiological 2. Safety 3. Love and belonging 4. Esteem 5. Self-actualisation |
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Deficiency needs can only be met by... |
External sources |
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What does self-actualisation enhance? When is the need satisfied? What kind of motivator? |
Learner's growth and development - the need for self-actualisation is never completely satisfied? Self-actualising activities are intrinsically motivating |
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3 criticisms of Maslow's hierarchy. |
1. People switch between levels 2. May be more than 1 need at same time 3. Hierarchy based on very little hard evidence (mere conjecture?) |
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True or False? All cultures stress the importance of positive self-evaluate |
FALSE in some cultures, the focus is more likely to be on correcting existing weaknesses than on demonstrating current strengths (i.e. self improvement ) |
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True or False? Cultural differences exist in self-determination. |
TRUE. Young people in Asian cultures often prefer that people they trust make the choices for them (wisdom) |
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Why can the need for relatedness sometimes be at odds with the need for self-determination? |
1. Achieving relatedness can involve doing what OTHERS want you to do 2. Achieving self-determination can involve doing what one PERSONALLY wants to do |
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What is the relationship between motivation and cognitive processes? |
Reciprocal |
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What is an interest the perception that ? What is it typically accompanied by? |
1. Perception that an activity is intriguing and enticing 2. Typically accompanied by both cognitive engagement and positive affect |
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What is situational interest? |
Interest evoked temporarily by something in the environment? |
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Interested learners are more likely to learn something .... and to undergo .... |
1. more likely to learn something meaningfully 2. more likely to undergo conceptual change when its warranted |
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Students who are interested show higher... and are more likely to r..... |
1. show higher academic achievement 2. more likely to remember subject matter long-term |
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Textbooks and other non-fiction are more interesting when ... (2) |
1. They are easy to understand 2. Relationships among ideas are clear |
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Define personal interests |
Personal interests: Long term, relatively stable interest in a particular topic or activity |
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Which kind of interest is more beneficial? |
Personal interest is more beneficial than situational interest |
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Why is personal interest more beneficial than situational interest? Hint. it sustains 3 things |
BECAUSE it sustains engagement, effective processing , and improvement over the long run |
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According to expectancy theory, motivation is based on the belief that what depends on what? |
Expectancy theory is a theory of motivation based on the belief that people's efforts to achieve DEPEND ON their expectations of reward |
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What is the Motivation (M) formula ? What is this model called? |
M = (Perceived probability of success) x (Incentive value of success) The expectancy-valence model |
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What does Atkinson point out about an overly high probability of perceived success? |
This can be detrimental to motivation - task viewed as too easy and thus individual doesn't do their best |
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What is the 'ideal' situation for motivation to be at a maximum? According to Atkinson. |
Highest motivation when MODERATE levels of probability of success |
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What kind of tasks (qualitatively) are better for learning and motivation? |
Moderate to difficult (but not impossible) |
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What are the implications of expectancy theory for education? |
1. Tasks should be neither too difficult nor too easy 2. Grading systems should be fair. It should be difficult but possible for as many students as feasible to get the top grade |
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What is a learning goal? Primarily motivated by? |
The goal of a student who is motivated primarily by desire for knowledge acquisition and self-improvement |
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What is a learning goal also known as? |
Mastery goal |
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What is a performance goal? Demonstrating...? Performance-approach goal? Desire to... Performance-avoidance goal? Desire to... |
Performance goal: desire to demonstrate high ability and to make a good impression Performance-approach goal: desire to look good and receive favourable judgments from others Performance-avoidance goal: desire not to look bad or receive unfavourable judgments from others. |
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Having which kind of goal is the 'optimal situation' in most situations? |
Mastery goals |
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Individuals with mastery goals tend to engage in which broad category of behaviours (+++) ? |
The very activities that will help them learn |
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Which activities do students with mastery goals engage in ? (3) |
1. Pay attention in class 2. Process information in ways that promote effective long-term memory storage 3. Learn from their mistakes |
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Learners with mastery goals have a health perspective about which 3 factors? |
1. Learning 2. Effort 3. Failure |
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What are the 3 negative consequence of having performance-avoidance goals? Students tend to... |
Students tend to: 1. Steer clear of challenges 2. Give up easily in the face of failure 3. Engage in self-handicapping when they expect to do poorly |
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What kind of learning approach is described as a 'mixed bag'? |
Performance-approach |
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Under which two conditions do performance-approach goals appear to be most detrimental? |
1. Learners are younger 2. Learners have low self-efficacy for classroom tasks |
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When do performance goals become increasingly prevalent? |
As children progress through the elementary and school grades |
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Give three teaching practices that contribute to the development of performance goals |
1. Reinforcing students only for correct answers 2. Posting only the "best" work on bulletin board 3. Reminding students of the importance of good grades for college admissions |
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A proximal goal is a concrete goal that can be... |
A proximal goal is a concrete goal that can be accomplished within a short time period; may be a stepping stone toward a long-term goal |
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Students with mastery goals recognize that competence comes from which 2 things? |
Competence comes only from effort and practice |
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Under which two conditions can mastery goals come from within? |
1. Students value topic 2. Students have high self-efficacy for learning a topic |
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List as many ways as possible of how classroom practices can encourage mastery goals (maximum 9) |
1. Show how mastery is RELEVANT to students' longer term personal & professional goals 2. Insist that students UNDERSTAND (rather than simply memorise) 3. Communicate belief that successful learning requires EFFORT and MISTAKES 4.Give students PROXIMAL GOALS 5. Ask students to SET OWN PROXIMAL GOALS 6. Offer SPECIFIC SUGGESTIONS on how they can improve 7. Give PRAISE that focuses on MASTERY of content 8. Provide regular FEEDBACK that enables students to assess their progress toward goals 9. Encourage students to USE PEERS AS SOURCE OF IDEAS/ASSISTANCE (and not as reference point for own progress) |
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What is a work-avoidance goal? 2 facets. |
Work avoidance goal: Desire either to avoid classroom tasks or to complete them with minimal effort |
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Which two conditions seems to foster work-avoidance goals? |
1. Low self-efficacy for assigned tasks 2. See no payoffs for mastering subject matter |
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Define 'attribution'. Hint: personally constructed |
Attribution: Personally constructed causal explanation for a particular event, such as a success or failure |
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What is an internal locus of control? External locus? |
Internal locus: learners attribute the causes of events to INTERNAL things - to factors within themselves External Locus: learners attribute events to EXTERNAL things - to factors outside themsleves |
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What are stable versus unstable factors? Controllable versus uncontrollable factors? |
Stable: events that won't change in near future Unstable: things that can change from one time to the next Controllable: events that you can influence and change Uncontrollable: things over which you have no influence |
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Why do attributions sometime not reflect the true state of things? |
1. They are self-constructed 2. They are contingent upon learner interpreting new events in light of existing knowledge and beliefs about themselves/ world , and then develop what seems to be a reasonable explanation of what happened (all of these processes = anchored in SUBJECTIVITY) |
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In general, learners tend to attribute successes to what and failures to what? |
SUCCESSES: internal causes FAILURES: external causes |
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What happens to learners when they CONSISTENTLY fail at tasks? (i.e. to their attribution) |
They begin to blame a stable and uncontrollable factor (their own low ability) |
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How do attributions influence learners' reactions? What impact do attributions have on expectations? |
1. Attributions influence learners' emotional reactions to success and failure (e.g. pride, guilt, shame ...) 2. Attributions impact on expectations for future success and failure (e.g. if failure is attribute to stable characteristic - they believe they will fail over and over again in the future) |
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Which two dimensions of motivation do attributions affect? |
Effort Persistence |
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How do expectations about classroom and academic success influence strategies? |
Learners who expect to succeed in the classroom and believe that academic success is a result of their own doing are more likely to apply effective learning and self-regulation strategies |
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Those with the incremental view of intelligence prescribe to which view? |
Incremental view of intelligence: Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice |
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Those with the entity view of intelligence prescribe to which view? |
Entity view of intelligence: Belief that intelligence is a distinct ability that is relatively permanent and unchangeable |
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What is a mastery orientation? Hint: pervasive |
Mastery orientation: General, fairly pervasive belief that one is capable of accomplishing challenging taks |
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True or False? Learned helplessness is pervasive, whereas a mastery orientation is almost always subject specific |
FALSE. They are both general and (fairly) pervasive |
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Define learned helplessness (in terms of task completion and environment) |
Learned helplessness: General, fairly pervasive belief that one is incapable of accomplishing tasks and has little or no control of the environment |
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How do students with a mastery orientation approach goals? 3 ways |
1. Set ambitious goals 2. Seek challenging situations 3. Persist in face of failure |
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How do students with learned helplessness approach goals? 3 ways |
1. Set goals they can accomplish 2. Avoid challenges likely to maximise their learning and cognitive growth 3. Respond to failure in counterproductive ways |
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Describe the situation of the 'self-fulfilling prophecy'. |
Self-fulfilling prophecy: A situation in which expectations for an outcomes either directly or indirectly lead to the expected result |
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Which cultures tend to value learning for learning's sake? Why (3 reasons) ? |
Asian cultures Knowledge leads to personal growth, better understanding of world, greater potential to contribute to society |
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Under which condition are European American students less likely to be diligent? Which situations are likely to pique their curiosity? |
1. When classroom topics have little intrinsic appeal 2. Assignments that require creativity, independent thinking or critical analysis |
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What are the gender differences in study motivation? Focus on girls. |
Girls .. more concerned with doing well in school, work harder on assignments, earn higher grades more often graduate from school |
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True or False? Boys are more discouraged by failure experiences than girls. This partially explains their lower average grades. |
FALSE Girls are more discouraged by failure experiences than boys |
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Under which classroom conditions do students from Low SES flourish? |
1. Teachers have high expectations 2. Engage students in high-interest activities and subject matter 3 Emphasise mastery goals over performance goals 4. Make students feel that they are valued members of the classroom community |
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Educational research has identified 6 salient factors in the development of a mastery orientation. Epstein summarised these in the acronym TARGET. What does this stand for? |
Task Authority Reward/Recognition Grouping Evaluation Time |
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According to TARGET, feedback should have which two characteristics? |
1. Specificity 2. Frequency |
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Define 'affect' in the context of motivation |
Affect: feelings, emotions and moods that a learner brings to bear on a task |
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Which kind of emotions are closely tied to people's self-evaluations? What do these emotions affect? |
Self-conciious emotions are closely tied to people's self-evaluation These emotions affect their sense of self-worth |
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Define 'self conscious emotion' (KW: society's standards). Give some examples of these emotions. |
Self-conscious emotion: Affective state based on self-evaluations regarding the extent to which one's actions meet society's standards for appropriate and desirable behaviour, examples are pride, guilt and shames |
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What is 'hot cognition'? Give an example. |
Learning or cognitive processing that is emotionally charged e.g. learners who feel frustrated and anxious when they struggle to master new material are more prone to develop a dislike for the subject matter |
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How can hot cognition be viewed positively with respect to the learning process? |
Learners = more likely to pay attention to, think actively about and remember emotionally charged information |
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Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of mental discomfort caused by what? |
Cognitive dissonance: Feeling of mental discomfort caused by new information that conflicts with current knowledge or beliefs |
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Distinguish between state and train anxiety |
State anxiety: temporary feeling of anxiety elicited by a threatening situation Trait anxiety: pattern of responding with anxiety even in nonthreatening situations |
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A small amount of anxiety can improve performance. What is this known as? |
Facilitating anxiety |
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A great deal of anxiety usually interfere with effective performance. What is this known as? |
Debilitating anxiety |
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Which 3 areas of cognition are impeded in a high level of anxiety? Which types of memory are interfered with? |
1. Paying attention to what needs to be learned 2. Processing information effectively 3. Retrieving information and demonstrating skills that have previously been learned Working Memory & Long-Term Memory |
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What are the differential attitudes towards success in a 'threat' and a 'challenge'? |
Threat: Learner believes there is little/no chance of success Challenge: Learner believes that success is possible IF sufficient effort is invested |
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According to sociocultural theories, many aspects are the result of which two factors? |
1. Social Factors 2. Cultural Factors |
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Give an example of internalisation. Give an example of situation. (Sociocultural theories) |
1. e.g. Children initially engage in certain behaviours to get parental approval, but gradually internalise theses, performing them in the ABSENCE of external pressure/reinforcement 2. e.g. Student more likely to think actively and elaboratively about academic topics when overall classroom community (culture) encourages and supports such thinking |
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Describe ways in which teachers can maintain/improve student curiosity. |
1. Demonstrations that surprise/baffle 2. Challenging students with problems they can't solve |
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What are the 4 phases in Renninger's "4 Phase Model of Interest Development"? |
1. Trigger situational interest 2. Maintain situational interest 3. Individual interest emerges 4. Well-Developed individual interest |