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193 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
The main process in discouraging devience
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-Social Control
-Socialisation Process |
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How is social control achieved?
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Positive and negitive sanctions, applied by formal agencies of control to ensure conforming to norms e.g. the law
agencies include: family, education, religion, police and courts |
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Define: Crime
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An act which breaches a law enacted by the state. Not all crimes are devient e.g. picking up money found in the street
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Define: Devience
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An act wich strays from social norms. Not all devient acts are criminal e.g. picking nose in public
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Social Construction of Crime
Newburn 2007 |
crime is a label attached to forms of behaviour which are prohibited by the state
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Social Construction of Crime
Labelling and Context |
Since an act only becomes criminal after its labeled, no act is initially criminal. Similar acts can be treated differently depending on interpretations of the law and context
e.g. murder is not criminal in war, but is in a knife fight at the pub |
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Social Construction of Crime
Changes in social attitudes |
Changes to social attitudes may see an act that was once criminal and is no longer (e.g. use of resonable force towards intruders in homes) and vice versa (e.g. fox hunting). Laws are constantly changing
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Social Construction of Crime
Interpretation |
Agencies of control may interpret a criminal act as criminal or not. But even if they do, there is no guarrenttee they'll do anything about it. This shows crime is a social construct due to individual interpretation
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Social Construction of Devience
Downes & Rock 2007 |
Ambiguity is a key feature of rule-breaking, as people are constantky unsure of what is and isn't devient. What is/isn't defined will depend on social expectations
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Social Construction of Devience
Plummer 1979 |
Societal Devience - shared ideas of devient due to shared expectations of behaviour
Situational Devience - an act is devient depending on factors such as: the time (as definitions of criminal change), the society/culture and the context |
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Functionalism and Crime
Durkheim |
Crime is an important part of healthy societies although too much can threaten social structure. Devience helps to re-inforce shared values and also promotes social change
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Functionalism and Crime
Uses of Crime Durkheim |
-Crime strengthens collective values, punishment reinforces conforming behaviour
-Allows social change and new ideas to develop -Is a warning that society is not working |
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Functionalism and Crime
Anomie Durkheim |
Normlessness as a result of people being incorrectly or insuffienctly socialised into society's norms and values
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Functionalism and Crime
Strain Theory and Anomie Merton |
Strain occurs due to the disjunction between goals and the means of achieveing them. Anomie is normlessness, but due to not being able to achieve goals
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Functionalism and Crime
Modes of Adaptation (Strain Theory) Merton |
Conformity- accept means ✓ accept goals ✓
Innovation- accept means x accept goals ✓ Ritualism- accept means ✓ accept goals x Retreatism- accept means x accept goals x Rebellion- accept means ✓/x accept goals ✓/x |
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Evaluation of Strain Theory |
-Focuses on individual responces rather than sovial patterns -Not all who face strain turn to crime/devience -Ignores corperate crime -Takes crime statistics as social fact |
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Functionalism and Crime
Safety Valve Davis 1961 |
E.g. when conflict between man's desire for sex and societies urge to restrict it, prostitutes (the crime) exist as a safety valve to prevent family breakdowns
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Functionalism and Crime
Evaluation of Durkheim |
-may demean impact by implying it's functional
-does not explain why some are more deviant that others -treats crime statistics as social fact |
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Functionalism and Crime
Evaluation of Davis |
To argue that crime + deviance has social consequences does not explain their presence
-Downes + Rock 2003 |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Albert Cohen 1953 |
Delinquent behaviour displayed in WC boys due to status frustration
People have the goal of status They gain status through deviancy quicker than through academic success |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Status Frustration Albert Cohen 1953 |
-People have the goal to be respected and valued
-MC achieve this through education success/parents -WC fail at school due to lack of cultural capital and settle for lower paid jobs/unemployment -WC denied status in wider society. Status frustration caused. -WC forms a subculture with alternative status heirarchys |
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Functionalism and Crime
Cloward & Ohlin 1961 |
Developed Cohen
-Boys belong to 3 sub cultures -criminal -conflict -retreatist |
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Functionalism and Crime
Miller 1962 |
3 focal concerns (for WC boys)
- Toughness, heightened sense of masculinity - Trouble, anti-education/authority - Excitement, thrill of criminal activity These focal concerns make crime inevitable as WC boys find bordem if they live outside these concerns. (Links to Bloods + Crips) |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Bloods + Crips Gang Study |
-Bloods + Crips are criminal gangs in LA
-Due to large numbers, they split into sub divisions -Identified through hair/tattoos/clothing etc Nightingale 1993: They're driven by material wealth reinforced by media but excluded educationally/economically and politically |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Evaluation of Miller |
-Assumes WC is problematic
-it condenses boys to creatures of criminality -not all WC boys deviate into subcultures or turn criminal -groups WC as one subculture |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Korem 1994 |
-MC seek substitute families through gangs as a result of career driven or divorced parents.
-Family problems NOT social class is a better predictor of crime |
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Female Involvement Thraser 1920 |
Study of 1113 gangs, only 6 had female members
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Functionalism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory Female Involvement Laidler & Hunt 2001 |
-Home girls admitted to criminal activity yet conformed to female gender roles
-Needed to ensure they didn't have sex with too many male members to avoid negative labelling |
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Marxism and Crime
Sub-cultural Theory |
-WC boys join subcultures as they are unable to prosper through capitalism
-Joining a gang offers support to like minded youths This can be prevented by provision of better education/job oppertunities |
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Marxism and Crime
Evaluation of Sub-cultural theory |
Functionlists - This is just an example of strain, as boys are unable to prosper through a system based on status, which they lack
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Marxism and Crime
Types of Crime Slapper & Tombs 1999 |
-Corporate
-White Collar -State |
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Marxism and Crime
Mystification Box 1981 |
refers to bourgeoisie presenting white collar crime as less harmful/serious
-explains how official crime statistics could be representative of crime |
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Marxism and Crime
Left Realism and the New Criminology Hall 1978 |
Social theory of deviance (6 dimensions)
-Wider societal origins of devient act -immediante origins of devient act -actual act -origins of social reaction -wider social reaction -outcomes of social reaction |
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Marxism and Crime
Left Realism |
Crime is increasing and evolving
Victims are often WC Official statistics are not JUST social constructs There is an ethnic dimension to crime |
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Marxism and Crime
The square of crime |
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Becker |
Deviance is only deviance because someone said so. Deviance is relative to individual perception
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Labelling Theories Young |
'Hippie Marijuana' Notting Hill-
what started as minor, insignificant drug use became a deviant career. The media reports and labels placed on hippies became their master status and so created a self fulfilling prophecy. Modern example: London riots |
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Labelling Theories Chambliss 1973/4 |
-two gangs committing same crimes in same areas -saints used cultural capital to escape punishment -roughnecks punished/labelled -2 rejected labels and succeeded, 2 frequent trouble, 2 serious offenders |
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Labelling Theories RDU 1974 |
Studied different ways black and white areas were policed
-black areas more supsiciously/aggressivly -overty racist comments to black suspects |
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Labelling Theories Reiner |
Casually employed/unemployed ethnic minority men more likely to be stop searched
-stereotype of typical criminal (from media?) -activities from lower levels of class structure/ethnic minority labeled suspicious |
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Labelling Theories Cicourel |
Study of police and juvenile probation officers (california)
-Both held similar ideas of typical delinquent -Young people who fitted this image were more likely to be arrested/charged -MC were usually counselled, cautioned, realeased -This is the reason for characteristics shown in statistics |
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Social Action Theory and Crime
Labelling Theories Cicourel & Kitsuse |
In education, students that are labelled by teachers become a self fulfilling prophecy. This COULD extend to crime in wider society as offenders are labelled by institutions of power and end up fulfilling the prophecy
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Integrative and Disintegration Shaming
Braithwaite 1989 |
-Use of dis-integrative is the norm in US and UK. Criminals more likely to feel unworthy of society and so rejoin subcultures
-Use of integrative shaming norm in places like Japan, where focus is to get offenders back into society
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Right Realism and Crime Over view |
-Government not supposed to remove root cause, only punish -Humans naturally selfish/greedy. Poor socialisation results in crime -Crime can only be reduced |
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Right Realism and Crime
Right Realists think... |
-Cause of crime is breakdown of communities and civility, rising class and inappropriate policing (leads to broken windows theory)
-Lone parent families who are dependent on benifits are the cause of crime -Police need a zero tolerance approach to crime
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Right Realism and Crime
Evaluation |
-Mooley - there is not a "scrap of evidence" which links single parent families to criminal behaviour
-Single mothers more likely to be victims rather than perpetrators |
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Rational Choice and Administrative Criminology
Overview |
-Criminals use rational choice to commit crime
-Rewards are often financial, but are sometimes peer approval -A.C used to prevent crime e.g. harsher penalties/making crime more difficult to commit |
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Examples of Administrative Criminology
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-CCTV
-Speeding Cameras -Body/Security guards -Prison -Repossession |
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Media and Crime
Pearson |
Middleaged people look back at the 'Golden Age' a period that is always 20 years ago
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Media and Crime
Construction of Crime Deviancy Amplicaton Wilkins 1964 |
-Agencies like the police and media create more deviance
-Minor/rare problems appear comon place -Increasing publicity can increase deviant behaviour by glamourising it or normalising it E.g. London riots spreading |
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Media and Crime
Construction of Crime Middletown Study Lynd 1925 |
-In town of Middletown, USA the radio was blamed by religious and community leaders for promoting imoral activities to youths
-The more children that heard about the activities, the more that participated |
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Media and Crime
Construction of Crime Moral Panics S.Cohen 1960's |
-Based on fale/exaggerated idea that some groups are folk devils
-Moral panics fueled by media coverage -Media uses 'symbloic shorthands', identifyiers like clothes, hair, language etc |
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Media and Crime
Construction of Crime Moral Panics Media as Moral Crusaders |
-Moral crusade against folk devils (which they created)
-E.g. Sarah's law + Sun newspaper |
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Media and Crime
Moral Panics Ideological Control Miller & Reilly 1994 |
-Moral panics soften public opinon
-Media's coverage of Islam terrorism is seen to promote islamophobia -The resulting government anti-terrorism legislation recieved broad public support despite reducing people's civil liberaties |
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Media and Crime
Examples of Recent Moral Panics |
-Knife crime 2000s
-Single mothers 2000s -Asylum seekers 2000s -Satanic child abuse 1980s |
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Crime Statistics Issues with Statistics |
-Crimes missing (White collar, rape etc) -low in validity -'Dark figure of crime' -socially constructed |
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Crime Statistics Change in Crime |
- recorded crime in UK (2014), 7.1million, decrease since 2013 -crime recorded by police increased between 1876-2000 -crime increased by 2 thirds between 1981 and 1995 |
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Crime Statistics Increase in recorded crime |
Due to low changes, higher levels of inequality, improved policing, increased sensitivity towards victims, more victims due to increased affluence (Links to Merton + Strain) |
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Crime Statistics Changes in Counting |
1998 - new counting rules or crime, records victim numbers rather than the whole crime |
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Crime Statistics Mesuring Crime |
- 'official' crime statistics (OCS) include police recorded crime, court records, caution records etc, OCS suggests 5million crimes took place in 2008/9 -British Crime Survey (BSC) 10.7million crimes in 2008/9 -Self Report Studies: anon questionaires asking people about crime |
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Crime Statistics Strengths |
-Shows pattern of crime since 1857 -used to identify trends/social backgrounds of criminals -assesses effectiveness of law enforment agencies (For approx 100 years crime stats taken as fact) |
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Crime Statistics Weaknesses |
-Police recording practises: Simmons + Dodd; 30% of reported crime not recorded in 2002/3 -Police Priorities: events that are too trivial, have too much paperwork or lack evidence may not be recorded -rReporting/Non-reporting: sexual crime not reported due to embarrasment/fear, victims view a crime as trivial, lack of faith in police |
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Crime Statistics Defining Crime |
-Laws/rules/regulations change -not all offences count as crime to be recorded (police wernt required to record assult until 1989) -1998 - counting changes increased crime by 15% |
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Crime Statistics Social Construction of Crime Figures |
1)incident 2)victim decides wether they are a victim 3)victim decides wether to call police 4)police decide if its a crime 5)police decide wether or not to record |
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Crime Statistics British Crime Survey Overview |
-large scale victim survey (50,000 people) -crime in england + wales -uses interviews -ages 10+ since 2009 -annualy includes crimes not recorded by police |
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Crime Statistics British Crime Survey Strengths |
-uses peoples experiences -checks police figures -builds victimology profiles -interview builds rapport -answers anonymous -large sample (40,000 actually take part) |
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Crime Statistics British Crime Survey Weaknesses |
-does not cover crime against businesses -excludes categories like sexual assult -people lie/exaggerate -small proportion of population -relies on people's memories -questionable validity due to social construction of crime (Jock Young 1988) |
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Crime Statistics Self Report Studies Overview |
-asks people about crime they have commited -answers anonymous + confidential -important in researching who commits crime |
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Crime Statistics Self Report Studies Maguire (1977) |
most respondants admitted to committing crime. This is evidence against the idea that some groups are more likely to be criminal than others |
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Crime Statistics Self Report Studies Weaknesses Box (1971) |
-SRS have validity/representiveness/relevence issues Validity: respondents forget/playdown/exaggerate extent of criminal activity; Rep: most SRS are on young people, rarely includes professional adults Rel: majority of reported crime is trivial |
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Crime Statistics Dark Figure of Crime |
Official crime rate underestimates the real or true rate of crime (4.7m 2008/9) -BSC: true level of crime is twice the official crime rate (10.7m crimes 2008/9) |
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Crime Statistics Fear of Crime |
-stats show public fear of crime is rising Why? -crime is over reported in the media -Home office (2003) those who read tabloid newspapers are twice as likely to be worried about crime compared to those that don't |
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Fear of Crime Demographic |
Age: males/females under 25 report highest fear levels of crime Ethnicity: minority ethnic groups fear crime more than white people Gender: women 3x as likely to fear physical attack then men |
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Ethnicity and Crime Overview |
-91% of british citzens are white (5% asian, 2% afro-carribean, 2% mixed or other) -Prison population of 80,000: 70% white, 21% afro-carribean, 8% asian -In the USA b;ack americans make up 13% of the population yet 50% of the prison population |
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Ethnicity and Crime Ministry of Justice 2008 Black Minorities |
-More likely to be arrested for robbery -3.5x more likely to be arrested, face court rather than caution and recieve prison sentance -3x more likely to be cautioned -5x more likely to go to prison |
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Ethnicity and Crime Ministry of Justice 2008 Asian Minorities |
-2x more likely to be stop searched -more likely to recieve court rather than caution -more likely to be arrested for fraud/forgery -If guilty, more likely to recieve prison sentance |
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Ethnicity and Crime Victimisation |
BME more likely to be victims of crime disproportionatluy to their numbers, particually evident with BME women |
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Ethnicity and Victimisation BSC |
Most recorded racist inccidents are crimes against property and verbal abuse/harrassment most incidents go unreported |
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Ethnicity and Crime Reasons for Criminality |
Structualist (eg. functionalism, Trad. Marxism): they are just more criminal Social constructionalist (eg. Neo-marxism, social action): justice system is unfair |
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Ethnicity and Crime Reasons for Criminality Lee + Young |
Left realism: balck people are not simply victims of a racist police force, but are more likely to be involved in street crime than whites Due to: marginalisation, reletive deprivation, sub-cultrual responce |
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Ethnicity and Crime Reasons for Street Crime |
-Education: 2006 only 5% of Afro-carribean boys achieved 5 GCSE's -Family structure: 60% of black males live in a SPF, wich tends to be poorer than the nucleur family -Mass Media: influence of rap (New right: rap music encourages bling, violence + criminality) |
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Ethnicity and Crime Crime against other Minorities |
-declining relgion and fundamentalism - crime often has an ethnocentric demographic |
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Ethnicity and Crime Racism in Statistics |
Over representation of Afro-carribean groups in crime stats is a social construction, created as a result of discrimination towards blacks/asians by the police and law enforment agencies |
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Ethnicity and Crime Reiner 2000 |
'Canteen culture' amounst police force reinforces suspicion, macho values and racism wich encourages racial stereotypes |
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Ethnicity and Crime Labelling Bowling + Phillips 2002 |
Higher levels of robbery amounst black people could be the result of labelling that arises from regular uses of stop/search proceedures, leading to a self fufilling prophecy |
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Ethnicity and Crime Political Nature of Black Crime Gilroy |
Neo Marxism: -young blacks targeted by the police+media -black crime is differet in that it is a conscious continuation of anti-colonial struggles -therefor it is political and potentionally revolutionairy eg. Rastifarianism is not just a religion, but also contatins revolutionary political ideas about overthrowing white culture |
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Ethnicity and Crime Policing Waddington |
-Police stop a proportonalty hight number of blacks compared to whites -police target 'high risk areas' where young EM groups hang out at night -EM groups are therefor more likely to be stopped because of where they are rather than their ethnicity |
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Gender and Crime Overview |
-OSC suggest recorded crime apperes to be a masculine activity, 87% of all recorded crime -Crime and devience seen as a (WC) male thing that ends as people settle down |
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Gender and Crime Heidonsohn 1985 |
Female crime is either invisible or stereotypical because -male dominance of offenders -male domination of sociology -sociological theorising -vicarious identification |
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Gender and Crime Why are women non-criminal? Heidonsohn 1985 |
-biological theory -sex role theory -transgression |
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Gender and Crime Women Biological Theory Lombroso |
'normal' females have a natural disposition that repels them from crime EV: little support but links between menstrual cycle and crime have been made |
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Gender and Crime Sex Role Theory |
sexes socialised differently -female: passive, caring, domesticity -male: toughness, agressiveness, sexual conquest |
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Gender and Crime Social control Heidensohn |
Women commit less crime due to ideological controlling -societies cemented together with a shared value system -bonding with family/peer groups women avoid crime to avoid negative labelling |
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Gender and Crime Social Control Carlen 1985 |
Functionalism! Adopted social control theory; -females become criminal because they have rejected the gender ideal (Durkheim's Anomie) -females who reject normal family life are most likely to be rule breakers |
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Gender and Crime Women Lack of Opportunity |
-refers to women confined to the private home world EV: women in work + cyber crime Wilkinson: where there is equality in the work place, more crime was commited by women |
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Gender and Crime Transgression Smart 1990 |
Post-modernism: Takes us beyond boundries of conventional criminology; considers as diverse as self imposed curfew, treatment of women as victims, domestic violence, abuse and rape |
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Gender and Crime Chilvery Factor H.Allan 1987 |
Mental health issues (including PMS) for female criminality results in lighter punishments by the courts |
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Gender and Crime Chilvery Factor EV Leonard 1982 |
'bad' women are treated harsher than men, particularly if labels attached to them suggest they are promiscuous or a bad mother. Failure to conform to gender norms results in harsher punishments due to 'double deviancy' |
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Gender and Crime Women's Liberation Adler 1975 |
Women's liberation will increase women's participation in crime -evidence based on group of juvinille crime by girls -women penetrate the labour market and criminal careers |
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Gender and Crime Women's Liberation EV Box |
-increase in women's property crime is related to poverty rather than liberation -relationship between the increase of female officers and recorded female crime -authorities have become sensitized, resulting in female crimes becoming more likely to be recorded |
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Gender and Crime Messerschmidt 1993 |
'normative masculinity' is highly valued by most men -men have to constantly work for this -excersized in power over women in work/home |
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Gender and Crime Middle Class Messerschmidt 1993 |
MC boys have academic achievement at the expense of emasculation-accommodate for this outside of school with pranks, excessive drinking and high spirits (links to Chambliss: Saints) |
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Gender and Crime Working Class Messerschmidt 1993 |
adopt 'oppositional masculinity' inside and out; more aggressive in nature Pimping and rape is sometimes used to express control over women |
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Gender and Crime Working Class Raewyn Connell |
Young black males can be sucked into property and violent crime as a way of enhancing hegemonic masculinity |
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Gender and Crime Aggressive Masculinity Campbell 1993 |
young men seek compensation for a lack of breadwinner status through aggressive masculinity -masculinity expressed through criminal behaviour eg. fighting/football hooliganism etc |
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Gender and Crime Enjoyment of Devience Katz 1988 |
(links to Miller's 3 focal concerns) criminology has failed to understand the role of pleasure in committing crime. The search for pleasure is meaningful within masculinities stress upon status. Violent crime is 'seductive', undertaken for thrills and potential danger |
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Gender and Victimology Women |
-25% of serious violence takes place in the home -1 in 4 women are victims of domestic violence -such crimes are under reported -home office 2001: 1 in 20 women aged 16-60 had been raped, 45% by current partners |
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Gender and Victimology Women Stanko 2000 |
an act of domestic violence is committed every 6 seconds in Britain A quarter of all violent crimes are domestic |
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Gender and Victimology Key Factors for Female Victims |
-Traditional gender-role socialisation -Crisis of masculinity -reactions to femminisation of the work place -sexual objectification of women as property when evaluating, consider exaggeration |
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Gender and Victimology Women CSEW |
-Women more likely to be victims of domestic violence (DV) + least likely to be reported -1/4 women suffer from DV -89% of DV committed by men to women -90% rape victims are women -in rape trials, women are seemingly put on trial instead of offenders |
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Gender and Victimology Men CESW |
Young men 16-24 are most likely to be victims of violent crime; this decreases with age |
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Age and Victimology Stats CSEW 2012/13 |
-Older men/women least likely to be victims of violent crime -16-24 reports more personal crimes -Youth culture opens opportunities to crime -16-24yr olds face 3xmore violent crime than all adults -6% of children experience violent crime |
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Ethnicity and Victimology Stats CSEW 2012/13 |
-honour Crimes -150,000 racially motivated crimes in 2010 -black/asian more likely to victims of racially motivated crime -risk of being victim of personal crime |
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Class and Victimology Stats CSEW 2012/13 |
-poorest sections of WC most likely to be victims of crime -due to Merton + strain, high deprivation/disorder -poorest areas most likely to be victims of household crime -poor usually steal from poor |
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Victimology Social Construction of Victims |
-Depends on attachment of victim label -Black figure of crime -some do not know they are victims -some people denied label - seen as responsible for their own victimization Tombs + Whyte 2007: accident victims of health/safety neglections blame themselves |
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Victimology Effects of Victimization Hoyle 2012 |
Crime results in physical harm; financial loss; anxiety; panic attacks; PTSD; fear etc -Security industry thrives on fear of crime |
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Victimology Effects of Victimization Walklate 2004 |
Secondary victimisation: in rape trials it is opften the female victim who is put on trial than the male suspect/offender |
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Positivist Victimology Tierey 1996 |
Includes identifying characteristics that make people different to non-victims: victim proneness and victim precipitation V PRO: characteristics that make people vulnerable V PRE: victims are actively involved/to blame for their victimization |
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Radical/Critical Victimology Conflict Theories |
Focus on wider social issues -CJS creates victims -social deprivation contributes to victims -Fem: intimate crimes due to male socialisation Racist police force explains ethnic crimes |
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Class and Crime Anomie |
->Durkheim (normlessness) -> Merton (Strain) -> Cohen (status frustration) |
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Class and Crime New Right |
-Meritocracy -Rational choice -Poor socialisation -Lack of Value consensus -Single mothers + breakdown of families VERY VICTIM BLAMING |
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Class and Crime Ecological Theory Shaw + Mckay 1931 |
pinpointed addresses in Chicago of where crime took place and devised 5 concentric zones -area 2 had the most crime: it was closest to the center but it had rapid social change- people moving into the area created social disorganization meaning social control is weak |
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Class and Crime Ecological Theory Differential Association/Cultural Transmission Sutherland + Cressy 1966 |
CT:poorest/socially disorganised areas- crime can become socially acceptable/passed through generations Successful criminals become role models DA: Shaw+Mckay too simplistic/difficult to prove, if the people around you commit crime you are more likely to be criminal |
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Class and Crime Ecological Theory Morris 1957 |
Studied Croyden; found that the way the council were housing problem families together caused high crime rates |
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Class and Crime Ecological Theory Baldwin + Bottoms 1976 |
Tipping: occurs when an area is seen to be going downhill, 'problem families' move in and affluent families move out, causing house prices to drop resulting in more 'problem families' arriving and more crime taking place |
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Class and Crime Ecological Theory Privatization of Public Space |
Crime prevention meathod; areas being privatised (shopping areas, leisure etc) have private policing to keep out undesirables. Results in mass gatherings on estates etc where they are more likely to become deviant and encounter police |
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Age and Crime Ecological Theory Nocturnal Economy Hobbs + Lister 2000 |
Refers to growth in nightlife in UK cities -thousands of drunk teenagers in early saturday/sunday mornings make more crime -3/4 of all violent crime takes place in urban areas 9pm-3am -mostly caused by drunk males |
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Class and Crime New Right/Realism Rational Choice Theory |
WC commit more crime than the MC because they chose to, since they have less to loose |
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Class + Crime Right Realism Less Informal Social Control |
WC individuals are controlled less by institutions such as family, peer groups and education |
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Globalisation and Crime McGrew 1992 |
A process where the events, decisions and people in one part of the world has a significant impact on a different part of the world |
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Globalisation and Crime Taylor 1997 |
Big corporations are able to go from country to country looking for the cheapest labor to make the most profit. This increases unemployment in the companies origin country, effecting WC males Causes an 'underclass' culture to develop out of material deprivation |
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Globalisation and Crime Marxism |
-Allows for increased white collar crime by exploiting proletariat in countries where it is cheaper to do so -maximizes profit and sends dominant ideology to the country causing cultural imperialism |
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Globalisation and Crime Functionalism |
Through technologies such as email and the internet, Globalisation has allowed cultural diversity, causing a disorganisation of norms and values and lack of social cohesian |
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Globalisation and Crime Drug Trafficking |
-in 88% of countries their drug trade is higher than their GPD -drug traffickers were the first criminals to benefit from globalisation -Colombians + Afghan's traffic drugs through well established routes -more travelers mean easier cover -causes 52,000 deaths per year in the USA |
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Globalisation and Crime People Trafficking |
-14,000 - 17,000 trafficked into the USA every year -50% of these are children -800,000 trafficked world wide each year -46% prostitution, 27% domestic, 10% agriculture, 5% factories, 12% misc misc includes arranged marriages, adoption and organ trafficking |
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Globalisation and Crime Cyber Crime |
-Financial scams -Money Laundering -Virus attacks -racial/religious hate promoting sites -hacking etc |
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Green Crime 3 Institutions |
Individuals - illegal waste dumping, poaching etc Government - pollution, illegal waste etc Businesses - Pollution, Illegal waste etc |
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Green Crime Wolf 2007 |
describes the way that actions break the law concerning the enviroment |
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Green Crime 4 groups Wolf 2007 |
-individuals eg. fly-tipping -private businesses eg. pollution, BP -states/governments eg. millitary, pollution -organised crime eg. mafia, yakuza |
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Green Crime Transgressive Approach Lynch + Stretsky 2003 |
enviromental crimionolgy should adopt a more transgressive (wider) approach, going beyond defining enviromental crime as simply law breaking |
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Green Crime Transgressive Approach White 2008 |
uses the approach to define environmental crime as any human action that harms the environment, whether it is illegal or not |
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Green Crime Examples of Green Crime |
-BP -Illegal fishing -Union Carbide Chemical Company -Trafficking of endangered animals |
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Green Crime Global Risk Society Beck 1992 |
Includes intentionally disastrous consequences for the global environment. Events in one country can have effects on others |
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Green Crime Enforcement against green crime Marxism Snider 1991 |
States are often reluctant to pass laws and regulations about pollution etc and generally only do so when pressured by the public. Enforced laws are calculated and relaxed to maintain profits |
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Green Crime Sutherland 1983 |
like other white collar and corperate crimes, eco-crimes do no carry the same stigma as conventional crimes, meaning that laws/regulations exist but are rarely enforced/punished |
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Green Crime Explanations White 2008 |
arises due to transnational corperations and nation-states hold a anthropocentric view of the world. The most important consideration is the well being of citizens through economic growth. The environment is an after thought. |
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Green Crime Explanations Wolf |
Motivated by the same factors as ordinary crime, suggesting that individuals are motivated to commit green crime because crime pays (reduces cost/personal hassle etc) and actions are not considered 'as wrong' |
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Green Crime Explanations Pearce 1976 |
most serious green crimes are 'crimes of the most powerful' - corporate businesses seeking to reduce cost and maximize profit |
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Green Crime EV White |
there is a lack of clarity in defining environmental crime. This can mean that green crime is accompanied by even greater risks of influence by the judgement and interpretations of researchers |
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White Collar Crime 6 corporate offences Slapper and Tombs |
-paperwork and non compliance -environmental -manufacturing -labor law violations -unfair trade -financial offences |
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White Collar Crime 7 reasons for invisibility of WCC in stats |
-hard to detect (Clarke 1990) -Often without victims (Croall 2007) -Benefit both parties -hard to investigate -lack of crime awareness -rarely prosecuted -better chance to be found not guilty |
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White Collar Crime Explanations |
-Reletive Deprivation -Control Theory -Differntial Association -Crimogenic captialism (Box, Slappper + Tombs) (if profits cannot be obtained legally in a global market they will be obtained illegaly) |
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Globalisation and Crime Transnational Organised Crime Farr (2005) |
two main forms of global criminal network 1) established mafias 2) newer organised crime groups- emerged since globalisation and collapse of communist regimes |
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Globalisation and Crime Transnational Organised Crime Castells |
emphasizes increasing international linkages between criminal groups and local criminal groupings becoming globalised |
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Globalisation and Crime Transnational Organised Crime Hobbs + Dunningham 1998 |
Global criminalized networks work within local contexts as interdependent local units |
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State Crime Green + Ward 2004 |
illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by or with the complicity of state agencies to further state policies. Eg. torture, corrupt policing, war crimes, assassination, genocide, violation of human rights |
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State Crime Transgressive Approach Green + Ward 2012 |
due to defining issues; involves going outside the usual boundries of defining crime as simply law-breaking. Suggested they should be considered as violating human rights |
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State Crime Human Rights |
Have become global social norms. Schwendinger + Green + Ward see human rights as involving a wider package of basic social and economic rights |
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State Crime Explanations Green + Ward 2012 |
two main explanations: 1) Integrated Theory -suggesting crimes arise from similar situations to those of other crimes, involves integrating 3 elements of motivations, opportunities and lack of control 2)Crimes of social obedience model- emphasises conformity to rules |
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State Crime Crimes of the Social Obedience Model Kelman + Hamilton 1989 |
violent states encourage obedience by those who carry out state backed systematic human rights abuse in 3 ways: -Authorization -Dehumanization -Routinization |
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State Crime Bauman 1989 |
The hollocaust was possible due to the violation of the social obedience model |
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State Crime Neutrilization Cohen 2001 |
Crime is justified by re-labeling them or excusing them as regrettable but justifiable |
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State Crime EV |
-Governments adopt strategies of denial -dark figure of state crime -researchers face strong official resistance -research can be dangerous and information can be difficult to obtain |
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Role of the CJS 4 inter-related aims |
1) detering people from crime 2) protecting the public 3) punishing criminal behaviour 4) reforming/rehabilitating criminals |
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Role of CJS Role of Punishment |
Functionalism - reinforces social solidarity and gives society an opportunity to express disapproval for deviant behavior, strengthening collective values Marxism - protects ruling class ideology |
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CJS Does imprisonment prevent crime? |
Downing street strategy unit- -22% increase in prison population since 1997 reduced crime by 5% -47.5% of prisoners released in 2010 reoffended within a year of release -each former prisoner committed an average of 4 offences |
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CJS Reasons for Offending Boorman + Hopkins |
re-offending prisoners have chaotic childhoods, during wich many experience abuse, violence at home and being taken into care. Many are unemployed, have issues with accomodation and have histories of mental illness. Prison often makes things worse |
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CJS Reasons for Offending Goffman |
Interactionalism - prisons have their own subcultures which provide training grounds for criminals and re-affirms the criminal label |
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CJS Reasons for Offending Becker 1997 |
Criminal label leads to a master status and self fulfilling prophecy |
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CJS Changing approaches to criminal justice Crawford + Evans 2012 |
the emphasis on crime reduction has been changing to give higher priority to crime prevention. This is accompanied by a growing recognition that the CJS should also protect the victim |
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CJS Changing approaches to criminal justice Postmodernism |
Draw attention to the growing detachment of the CJS fro centralized control to local arrangements e.g. policing is community based |
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Left Realism Social Crime Prevention |
The offenders and victims of crimes people worry about the most are in the most deprived areas, therefor tackle material and cultral deprivation such as poverty, poor housing, family conflict etc |
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Left Realism Social Crime Prevention Kinsey et al 1986 |
Lack of trust in police means police use military style force which is ineffective and results in increased tensions |
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Left Realism Social Crime Prevention Methods |
-building strong community cohesion -multi-agency working -democratic/community control of policing -tackling social deprivation -parenting support |
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Left Realism Social Crime Prevention EV |
-'soft' on crime -explanations are inadequate -ignore white collar crime -neighbor hood policing can be seen as an extension of state control |
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Right Realism Situational Crime Prevention Clarke 1992 |
makes crime a less attractive choice for offenders, achieved by 'designing out crime' Pease - bars, bolts and barriers: anti-climb paint, CCTV, smartwater, locks, targeted policing make it more difficult to be criminal |
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Right Realism Situational Crime Prevention EV |
Displacement theory - making one area less apealling to criminals causes a displacement of criminals to other areas |
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Right Realism Increased Social Control |
Linked to Hirschi's control theory: individuals are encouraged to chose conformity over deviance when there are strong bonds tying them to communities e.g. Neighbor Watch, Zero tolerance policing and increasing parental responsibility |
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Right Realism Broken Window Theory Wilson 1985 |
A broken window (symbol of social disorder) remains unfixed, more windows will get broken due to a sense of 'no one cares' and 'anything goes' which can lead to more serious crimes |
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Suicide 4 types Durkheim |
1) Egotistical - insufficient intergration 2) Alturistic - excessive intergration 3) Anomic - anomie 4) Fatalistic - suicide presenting an escape of despair or hopelessness |
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Suicide Positivist Approach Durkheim |
-Suggested sociology could be measured scientifically -aimed to show that even individual acts are a sum of social force -quantitative data; suicide stats |
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Suicide Analysis of Stats Durkheim |
found that: -suicide rates fairly constant over time -significant differences between societies e.g. catholic/protestant -significant differences between social groups in the same society suicide was concluded as a force of social integration and moral regulation |
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Suicide Durkheim's Suicide - Positivist EV |
suggests Durkheim placed too much emphasis on religion rather than rural/urban groups. Some argue he is too vague in defining social integration and ways of measuring it. His definition of suicide is based of assumptions of what group membership means to people |
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Suicide Limitations of Stats |
-some may be misclassified -coroner may give a narrative verdict (more than one possible cause of death) -may be stigma attached to reporting death as suicide -multiple definitions of suicide |
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Suicide Interpretative approach |
Social construction of suicide means stats are neither valid nor reliable To describe a death as suicide requires understanding of motive. Interpretivists suggests defining suicide involves social construction of meaning by others |
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Suicide Social Meanings of Suicide Douglass |
Critical of Durkheim's stats use -whether a death is called suicide is dependant on the factors durkheim identified as causing suicide -eg. family/friends may try to cover up a suicide due to guilt/shame/religion in constrast, some societies see suicide as honourable/has less stigma |
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Suicide Construction of Suicide Douglass |
suicide is not always the same act, the victim can construct how others interpret their deaths e.g. suicide notes others can disguise their suicide as accidents |
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Suicide Problem Solving Baelcher 1979 |
Developed Douglass's approach: suicide is a rational means to gain something by problem solving that something can be release from pain/hopelessness, revenge, joining a loved one in heaven or gaining excitement/thrills through risk taking most people facing social problems will not commit suicide |
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Suicide Role of the Coroner Atkinson 1971 |
studied coroners decision making using qualitative methods (interviews etc). Coroners can only guess and look for clues. 4 major types of evidence -suicide notes -modes of death -location/circumstance of death -life history/mental condition |
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Suicide Role of the Coroner Conclusion Atkinson 1971 |
-Coroners are not consistent -different interpretations of evidence lead to no solid conclusion -therefor suicide stats are showing a highly selective, socially constructed set of classifications labeled as suicide |
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Suicide 'Person Under Trains' Left Realism Taylor 1990 |
Agrees w/ Atkinson; acknowledges coroners role in defining suicide but argues it is still possible to find the causes of suicide. Also argues Durkheim wasn't positivist as social forces of integration are neither quantifiable nor observable |
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Suicide Certainty and Attachment Taylor |
degree of certainty/attachment to others make people attempt/commit suicide. 2 main categories -inter-directed suicides: very personal, individual is detached from others. certainly leads to success, uncertainty is about risk -Other-directed suicides: involves relations to others and communicating a message to them |
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Suicide Certainty and Attachment EV |
dosn't explain what the wider social factors are that influence certainty and uncertainty/attachment and detachment Taylor may be indebted to Durkheim's theory of anomie, which may be the forces he's talking about |