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106 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Organs in the Urinary System |
Consists of two kidneys, two Ureters,the urinary bladder and the urethra |
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What is the primary organ of the urinary system? |
Kidney |
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Which organs function for transportation in the urinary system? |
Urethra and Ureters |
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Which organ is used for storage in the urinary system? |
Bladder |
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What is the function of the kidneys? |
Waste and Excesses eliminated Regulating blood volume and pressure•Regulate osmolarity Blood pressure control & electrolyte balance Erythrocyte synthesis Regulate PCo2 & Acid-Base Balance Synthesis of Vitamin D Detoxify drugs & free radicals Gluconeogenesis |
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Nephron |
Filteration 1.2 million nephrons per kidney 2 parts of a nephron -corpuscle-filters blood plasma -renal tubule-converts filtration to urine |
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3 steps of Urine Formation |
1) Glomerular Filtration 2) Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion 3) Water Conservation |
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Reduces Renal Function |
Sympathetic innervation from abdominal aortic plexus. |
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May increase Renal Function |
Parasympathetic innervation from vagus nerve. |
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How much fluid can the urinary bladder hold? |
800ml |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 1 |
Stretch receptors detect filing of bladder, sends afferent signals to the spinal cord |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 2 |
Signals return to bladder from spinal cord segments S2 & S3 via parasympathetic fibers in pelvic nerve |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 3 |
Efferent signals excite detrusor muscle |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 4 |
Efferent signals relax the internal urethral sphincter. Urine is involuntarily voided if not stopped by the brain |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 5 |
For voluntary control, micturition center in pons receive signals from stretch receptors |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 6 |
If able to urinate, pons returns signal to spinal interneurons that excite the detrusor muscle and relax internal urethral sphincter. Urine is voided |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 7 |
If unable to urinate, pons stimulates spinal interneurons that keep external urethral sphincter contracted. Urine is not voided, and stays in the bladder |
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Micturition (Urination) Reflex Step 8 |
After step 7, if able to urinate, signals from pons to cease and external urethral sphincter relaxes. Urine is voided |
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Properties and Composition of Urine |
Usually about 95% water and 5% solutes pH 6.0 (acid) osmolarity (hydrated person) = 50mOsm/L (dehydrated person) = 1200mOsm/L usually clear, can range from colorless to dark amber depending on concentration density (hydrated person) = 1.001 (dehydrated person) = 1.028 |
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Cystitis |
Urinary bladder infection |
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Pyelitis |
Infection of the Renal Pelvis |
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Pyelonephritis |
Infection of the Renal cortex and Nephrons |
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Two substances that should not pass through kidneys very much because of the size of the molecules |
Glucose Proteins |
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Two types of Nephrons |
Cortical (85%) Juxtamedullary (15%) |
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Renal Circulation |
Renal arteries arise directly from aorta and veins flow into the vena cava Each breaks into smaller/finer branches to supply individual nephrons |
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Afferent arterioles... |
leads to the glomerulus in the glomular capsule |
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Efferent arterioles... |
leaves the glomerulus to connect with the peritubular capillaries |
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Glomerular Filtration |
Creates plasmalike filtrate of the blood |
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Tubular Reabsorption |
Removes useful solutes from the filtrate, returns them to the blood |
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Tubular Secretion |
Removes additional wastes from the blood, adds them to the filtrate |
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Water Conservation |
Removes water from the urine and returns it to blood: concentration wastes |
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Renal Autoregulation |
the nephron adjusts its own blood flow and Glomerular Filtration Rate to maintain stable filtration rates |
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Sympathetic Control |
reduce Glomerular Filtration Rate and renal output to redirect blood flow to muscles the heart or brain during fight/flight situations, exercise, and trauma |
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Renin-Angiotensin Mechanism |
activated by a drop in blood pressure can have body retain for fluid and electrolytes to artificially raise blood pressure |
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Things not filtered by tubular secretion |
Urea, uric acid, bile acids, ammonia, catecholamines, and creatinine morphine, penicillin, aspirin hydrogen ions and bicarbonate ion |
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Atrial natriuretic peptide |
Increases urine levels and lowers blood pressure |
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Male urethra is... |
18 cms (about 8 inches) |
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Female urethra is... |
3-4 cms (about 2 inches) |
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Urinalysis |
Appearance Odor Specific Gravity Osmolarity pH Chemical Composition |
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Oliguria |
Small amount of urine |
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Polyuria |
Lots of urine |
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Anuria |
No urine |
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What are the complications of to take into consideration when treating someone for an imbalance of pH, water or electrolytes? |
Depending on what a patient has, a different amount of water and concentration is needed. You should not over treat or delay treatment. Doing that can cause them to possibly cascade into something worse. Don't give them too much water or too little water. If someone has edema, then too much water could cause the problem to get worse. |
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Water Balance |
intake = output |
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Electrolyte Balance |
absorbed electrolytes = to those lost from body, chiefly through urine |
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Acid-Base Balance |
body rids itself of acid at the same rate that balances its metabolic production |
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Total Body Water |
Intake is regulated by thirst Output is greatly varied with physical activity and environmental conditions Gain/lose 2500 ml of water a day |
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Electrolyte balance is important because... |
Electrolytes are chemically reactive and participate in metabolism Determine electrical potentials across membranes Strongly influence osmolarity of the body fluids and the body's water content/distribution |
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Effects of Potassium Imbalances on Membrane Potentials |
Function - membrane potentials, protein synthesis, thermogenesis Regulation - sodium/potassium pump/channels, aldosterone Imbalances - Hyperkalemia, excitable cells that are easily depolarized. Hypokalemia, depressed cells that are difficult to excite |
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Effects of Sodium Imbalance |
Function - membrane potentials, protein synthesis, thermogenesis Regulation - sodium/potassium pump/channels, aldosterone Imbalance - Hyponatremia leads to hypotonic hydration Hypernatremia leads to water retention/edema and hypertension |
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Effects of Calcium Imbalance |
Function - muscle contraction, second messenger for hormones and neurotransmitter, blood clotting, bone structure/support Regulation - parathyroid, calcitriol, calcitonin Imbalances - Hypercalcemia results in muscle weakness, depressed reflexes and cardiac arrhythmia by inhibiting depolarization Hypocalcemia leads to hyper excitable cell membranes and muscle tetany |
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Effects of Chloride Imbalance |
Function- pH balance, stomach acid formation forprotein digestion, CO₂ exchange Regulation- sodium homeostasis, chloride ions passivelyfollow sodium Imbalances- hyperchloremia and hypochloremia result in disturbances of the acid-basebalance |
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Effects of Phosphate Imbalance |
Function- protein synthesis, ATP, GTP, cAMP, creatine and nucleic acids formation Regulation- parathyroid, urine pH
Imbalances- –not critical as other electrolytes–Body can tolerate significant changes of 3x the normal levels with no immediate physiological effect |
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3 things that trigger aldosterone |
Hypotension (low blood pressure) Hyponatremia (low sodium) Hyperkalemia (high potassium) *potassium levels shut down aldosterone* |
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Calcitonin |
Correction for hypercalcemia (too much calcium in blood) Deposit calcium in bone Reduce osteoclast activity |
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Parathyroid Hormone |
Correction for hypocalcemia (too little calcium in blood) Breaks down bone to get calcium Increase osteoclast activity |
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How does the respiratory system help with acid/base balance? |
Removes 3 times the amount of CO2 from the blood compared to the chemical buffering system |
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How does the urinary system help with acid/base balance? |
Kidneys neutralize more acids or bases than the chemical buffering systems or the respiratory system combined expels pure hydrogen, other systems cannot |
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pH is below 7.35 |
Acidosis |
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pH is above 7.45 |
Alkalosis |
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Acidosis and Alkalosis can be... |
Fatal |
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Alimentary canal order |
Tongue> Esophagus> Stomach> Duodenum> Jejunum> Ileum> Cecum> Large Intestines> Anal Canal> Anus |
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Steps of the mechanical digestion |
Mastication- Breaks food down into smaller pieces Deglutition (swallowing)- 3 stages 1) Oral stage (voluntary) 2) Pharyngeal/ 3) Esophageal (involuntary): stimulates muscle contractions of pharyngeal Peristalsis: wavelike motion to push bolus esophagus and intestinal wall (food down) Segmentation: back and forth movement of food in intestinal walls |
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Chemical digestion |
Produces chemical change in food Made from hydrolysis (water and a compound) to make simpler compound Enzymes are catalysts, specialized proteins |
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Saliva |
The first part of chemical digestion. Enzyme helps breakdown complex carbohydrates Enzyme helps breakdown fats Immune response Lubricates food |
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Mechanical digestion |
Produces physical change in food Mastication, breaking food down into smaller pieces |
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Function of the lips
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hold and direct food in oral cavity |
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Function of the cheeks |
lateral boundaries of the oral cavity, containing mucus secreting glands, hold and direct food |
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Function of the hard palate |
olfactory nerves penetrate for smell |
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Function of the soft palate |
forms partition between the mouth and the nasopharynx |
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Function of the tongue |
Important for mastication and deglutition and taste |
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Function of the teeth |
organs of mastication |
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Function of small intestines |
Important for digestion/absorption Made of Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum Intestinal lining has plicae with villi. This increases the surface area which increases absorption rate. |
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Function of large intestines |
No digestion occurs in the large intestines Primarily absorption of water and nutrients. Helps eliminate wastes from digestion such as water, bile, mucus, and feces |
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Function of the liver |
Liver can detoxify substances to make them non toxic Liver can secret bile Important in metabolizing proteins, fats, and carbohydrates Storage of substances such as iron and some vitamins |
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Function of gallbladder and bile |
Stores bile Contains concentration of bile from five fold to ten fold Ejects concentrated bile into duodenum |
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Function of stomach |
Reservoir for food until more digestion can occur secretes gastric juice to aid in digestion breaks food into small particles helps protect body from pathogenic bacteria swallowed with food |
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Function of pancreas |
Exocrine- pancreatic duct which empties into the duodenum Endocrine- pass secretion into the stomach Acinar secrets digestive enzymes for complex carbohydrates, beta cells secrete insulin, and alpha cells produce glucagon |
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Stomach Digestion & Absorption of... Protein Starch and Fats |
Protein partially digested by salivary glands Starch & Fats are less than protein Absorption- aspirin and some lipids soluble drugs (alcohol in small intestines) |
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Types of Carbohydrates |
Polysaccharides- starches, glycogen Disaccharides- sucrose, lactose, and maltose require the enzymes Monosaccharides- simplest form of carbohydrates: glucose, fructose, galactose |
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Types of Proteins |
Pepsin- produced by chief cells in stomach Trypsin & chymotrypsin- produced in pancreas |
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Body Heat and Thermoregulation |
Heat production occurs through metabolic rate or vasoconstriction, by friction Hypothalamus monitors blood temperature and receives signals from skin about the environment. Has mechanisms in place to maintain normal body temperature. |
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Negative feedback loops to help control thermoregulation |
Shivering thermogenesis Nonshivering thermogenesis Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation Sweating Behavioral thermoregulation |
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Disturbances in Thermoregulation |
Heat cramps = electrolyte loss Heat exhaustion = electrolyte and water loss Heat Stroke = fatal, radiation and conduction. Body gains heat but cannot evaporate heat Hypothermia = fatal and life threatening, positive feedback loops |
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Mechanisms for absorption |
Diffusion Sodium-potassium pump Osmosis Sodium co-transport system (carrier for glucose) |
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Water intake to output |
9.0L in = .1L out 2L from intake 1L from salivary 2L from stomach acids 1.2L from pancreas 0.7L from liver 2.0L from small intestines 92% of water is absorbed in the small intestines 6-7% of water absorption -.1L from feces |
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Digestion Steps... |
Mouth=> Upper Esophageal Sphincter=> Esophagus=> Lower Esophageal Sphincter=> Stomach=> Pyloric Sphincter=> Duodenum (pancreatic and bile duct)=> Jejunum=> Ileum=> Iliocecal Junction=> Iliocecal Valve=> Cecum=> Ascending Colon=> Hepatic Flexure=> Transverse Colon=> Splenic Flexure=> Descending Colon=> Sigmoid Colon=> Rectum=> Anal Canal |
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Reactants of Glycolysis |
- Glucose - 2 ADP - 2 Pi - 2 NAD+ |
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Products of Glycolysis |
- 2 pyruvate - 2 NADH - 2 H+ |
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Reactants of Anaerobic fermentation |
- 2 pyruvic acid - 2 NADH |
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Products of Anaerobic fermentation |
- 2 lactic acid - 2 NAD+ |
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Reactants of Aerobic respiration (Matrix reactions) |
- 2 pyruvic acids - 8 NAD+ - 2 FAD - 2 ADP - 8 H2O - 2 Pi |
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Products of Aerobic Respiration (Matrix reactions) |
- 6 CO2 - 8 NADH - 2 FAD(H2) - 2 ATP - 2 H2O |
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Reactants of Aerobic Respiration (Membrane reactions) |
- 10 NADH - 2 FAD(H2) - 6 O2 |
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Products of Aerobic Respiration (Membrane reactions) |
- 32-34 ATP - 12 H2O |
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Purpose of Glycolysis |
Reorganizes glucose and splits it in two in preparation for further oxidation by the mitochondria Makes ATP |
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Purpose of Anaerobic fermentation |
Regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to function (and generate ATP) in the absence of oxygen |
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Purpose of Aerobic respiration (matrix reactions) |
Remove electrons from pyruvic acids and transfers them to coenzymes NAD+ and FAD Produces some ATP |
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Purpose of Aerobic respiration (membrane reactions) |
Finishing oxidation and produce most of the ATP of cellular respiration |
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Male Reproduction function |
Male reproductive system consists of organswhose functions are to produce, transfer, and introduce mature sperm into thefemale reproductive tract where fertilization can occur |
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Female Reproduction function |
It produces eggs, or female gametes, whicheach may unite with a male gamete to form the first cell of an offspring It also can provide nutrition and protectionto the offspring for up to several years after conception |
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Male parts |
Penis, Scrotum, Testis, etc |
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Female parts |
Ovaries, Uterine tube, Uterus, Vagina |
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Secondary Sex characteristics |
- Pubic and axillary hair & associated scent glands - Pitch of voice Male: Facial hair, coarse, visible hair on torso and limbs Female: Distribution of body fat, breast enlargement, hairless appearance of skin, flare of pelvis and feminine physique |
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Presences of Testosterone |
Develops male external genitalia from 10 to 12 weeks |
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Absences of Testosterone |
Develops female external genitalia from 10 to 12 weeks |