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143 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the structural organization of anatomy?
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Cells make tissues, which make organs, whick make organisms.
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What is homeostasis?
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The ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously.
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Most of the mass of an atom can be accounted for by its ______ and ______.
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Protons and neutrons
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What is an element?
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A unique substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical methods.
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What is a molecule?
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A combination of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
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What is a compound?
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A combination of two or more atoms of different elements - forms molecules of a compound.
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Describe an atom
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Smallest particle of an elemental substance that exhibits the properties of that element; composed of protons, neutrons and electrons.
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When is an atom stable?
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When its outermost electron shell is full (either 2 or 8 electrons).
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An ion of an element contains an unequal number of protons and _______
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Electrons
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Functional groups help determine the properties of molecules. Name two functional groups
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Alkane, alkene, alkyne, alcohol, ketone, aldehyde, carboxylic acid, ether, ester, amine, amide, nitro, phosphate, disulfide...
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A beaker contains a strong solution of HCl. What pH values might this solution have? 2, 4, 7, 10, 14
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2, 4
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A beaker contains a strong solution of NaOH. What pH values might this solution have? 2, 4, 7, 10, 14
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10, 14
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What is the pH of blood?
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7.35-7.45
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What is the definition of a salt?
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An ionic compound containing cations other than H+ and anions other than OH-
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What is an acid?
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Proton donor
Takes up OH- or releases H+ |
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What is a base?
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Proton acceptor
Releases OH- or takes up H+ |
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Classify the following as elements or molecules: salt, glucose, boron
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Salt - molecule
Glucose - molecule Boron - element |
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Flourine has an atomic number of 9 and an atomic mass of 19. Determine how many protons, electrons and neutrons are present.
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Electrons - 9
Protons - 9 Neutrons - 10 |
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How many electrons are in the outermost shell of flourine with the atomic number 9 and atomic mass 19?
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7 - the total number of electrons is 9 and the 1s shell holds 2 so the remaining 7 electrons fill the 2s and partially fill the 2p subshells
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If flourine were to bond with sodium, what type of bond would forn?
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Ionic
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What is an isotope of an atom?
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An atom with two or more structural variations that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons.
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What is the maximum number of electrons found in the second shell of an atom?
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8 - 2s can hold 2, 2p can hold 6 for a total of 8
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What is a covalent bond?
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Shared electrons occupy a single orbital common to both atoms
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What is an ionic bond?
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Chemical bond between atoms formed by the transfer of one or more electrons from one atom to the other.
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What is a hydrogen bond?
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More like attractions than true bonds, hydrogen atoms linked to one electronegative atom is attracted to another electron-hungry atom. *Think of a post-it note, easy attraction but easily broken.
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What are the van der Waal forces? What are the weakest of these forces?
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London disperson forces
Dipole/Dipole forces Hydrogen bonding All are attractions or repulsions between molecules or atoms of a large molecule. London disperson are the weakest and hydrogen bonding is the strongest. |
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What is a polar covalent molecule?
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Atoms bonded covalently where the electronegativity difference is greater than 0.4 but less than 1.9 - otherwise if greater than 1.9 would be ionic or less than 0.4 would be noncovalent. Part of the molecule maintains a partial positive charge and part maintains a partial negative charge.
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Define pH.
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-log (base 10) of [H+] when [H+] is given is mol/liter.
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What is the pH of a solution containing a hydrogen ion concentration of 10^-5 moles/liter?
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5
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What is a buffer? Name one important buffer system.
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Resists abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids by releasing hydrogen ions when the pH begins to rise and by binding hydrogen ions when the pH drops. The bicarbonate buffer system.
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Define hydrophobic, hydrophilic and amphipathic.
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Hydrophobic - water fearing (non-polar)
Hydrophilic - water loving (polar) Amphipathic - has both polar and non-polar regions |
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What is a polymer, a monomer?
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Polymer - chainlike molecules made of many similar units.
Monomer - one unit Glycogen polymer - Glucose monomer Maltose polymer - Glucose monomer Lactose polymer - Galactose and glucose monomers |
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What are the three basic parts of a nucleotide?
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Phosphate, sugar, nitrogenous base.
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Describe the structure of DNA and how does it differ from RNA?
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DNA is double stranded, helical, antiparallel, base pairing, sugar is deoxyribose.
RNA is usually single stranded, sugar is ribose, contains uracil in place of DNA's thymine. |
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What does antiparallel mean when applied to DNA?
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Opposite ends (3' and 5') are paired together. Strings run in opposite direction of each other.
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A triglyceride is made up of what?
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One glycerol and three fatty acids.
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In DNA what is the base pairing model?
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Adenine and Thymine
Cytosine and Guanine |
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Is a phospholipid amphipathic? Where do you find phospholipids?
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Yes phospholipids are amphipathic. Phospholipids are found in the plasma membrane of the cell where they form a tail-to-tail bilayer.
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What is the general structure of a carbohydrate?
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C - n
H - 2n O - n |
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What is the general structure of a polypeptide?
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Amino acid chain (protein) where the amine group of one amino acid binds to the carbolylic acid group of another amino acid.
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What is the general structure of a lipid?
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Long chain of hydrogen and carbon. Non water soluble.
Ex phospholipid, triglyceride, steroid |
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What is a fatty acid?
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A lipid with a carbolylic acid end.
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What is glycerol?
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A triol (3 alcohol groups) on adjacent carbon atoms.
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What is a triglyceride?
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3 fatty acids bonded to a glycerol.
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What is a phospholipid?
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A triglyceride where one of the fatty acids has been replaced with a phosphate group.
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What is the general structure of a steroid?
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4 cyclic rings bonded together with an end where one of several different chains can be attached. Ex cholesterol, testosterone, estrogen.
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What physical property distinguishes lipids from polysaccharides?
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Solubility in water
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Polysaccharides are polymers of
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sugar.
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What type of bond holds the individual monomers together in the case of cellulose and glycogen? What is an alpha and beta type of this bond?
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In cellulose it is beta 1-4 glycosidic linkages. In glycogen it is alpha 1-4 glycosidic linkages. Beta is up-down. Alpha is down-down.
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Name and describe the four levels of structure of proteins.
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Primary - Linear sequence of amino acids composing the polypeptide chain.
Secondary - The twisting and bending of primary structure upon itself (alpha helical, beta pleated sheets). Tertiary - the polypeptide folds upon itself to produce a compact ball-like or globular molecule. Quarternary - When two or more polypeptide chains aggregate in a regular manner to form a complex protein. |
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When ATP breaks down into ADP and inorganic phosphate, is energy released or absorbed? Where is ATP made/recycled?
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Energy is released when the phosphate bonds are broken and absorbed when the phosphate bonds are formed. ATP is generated in the Citric Acid Cycle of the body. Mitochondria are the ATP powerhouses of the cell/body.
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What is an enzyme? How do they work? What are some characteristics of enzymes?
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An enzyme is a globular protein that acts as a biological catalyst.
They work to reduce the activation energy required to produce a reaction. They are themselves unchanged in a reaction and able to be used again. They can be part of cellular membranes. Some are produced inactive and must be activated elsewhere in the body in order to be effective. |
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What contributions to biology were made by the following: Robert Hooke, Anton van Leuwenhoek, Mathias Schleiden, Theodore Schwann, and Rudolph Virchow?
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Hooke - coined the term cell, discovered cells
van Leuwenhoek - saw microscopic life, blood cells and single cell organisms Schleiden and Schwann - cells were building blocks of organisms Virchow - all cells come from cells |
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Describe the structure and function of the outer cell (plasma) membrane.
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Defines the extent of a cell, thereby separating two of the body's major fluid compartments - intracellular and extracellular. Double layer or bilayer of lipid molecules with protein molecules dispersed in it. Surrounds the cell.
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Describe the structure and function of the nucleus.
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Control center of the cell, gene containing, contains the instructions needed to build nearly all the body's proteins, dictates the kinds and amounts of proteins to be synthesized. Made up of membrane, nucleoli, and chromatin. Nuclear membrane is two layered with pores for excretion.
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Describe the structure and function of the nucleolus.
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Not membrane bound. Sites where ribosome subunits are assembled. Located within the nucleus. Dark staining spherical bodies. May be more than one in each nucleus.
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Describe the structure and function of the nuclear pores.
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Place in the nuclear membrane where the two layers interconnect allowing for transport into/out of the nucleus.
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Describe the structure and function of the ribosome.
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Small dark staining granules, comprised of two subunits that fit together, site of protein synthesis, some float freely in cytoplasm and others are embedded into the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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Describe the structure and function of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
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Studded with ribosomes, its ribosomes manufacture all proteins that are secreted from cells, cell's membrane factory.
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Describe the structure and function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
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Tubules are arranged in a looping network, plays no role in protein synthesis, its functions are lipid metabolism, synthesis of cholesterol, lipid components, steroid-based hormones, synthesis and transport of fats, detoxification of drugs, certain pesticides, and carcinogens, breakdown of stored glycogen.
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Describe the structure and function of the golgi apparatus.
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Stacked and flattened membranous sacs, swarms of tiny membranous vesicles, traffic director for cellular proteins, modify concentrate and package the proteins and lipids made at the rough endoplasmic reticulum, cis face receiving side, trans face shipping side.
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Describe the structure and function of the cytoplasm.
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Elaborate series of rods running through the cytosol, 3 types - microfilaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, give the overall structure to the cell.
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Describe the structure and function of the mitochondria.
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Sausage shaped membranous organelle, powerplants of cells providing most ATP, two membranes smooth outer and folding inner membrane forms the cristae, contain DNA and RNA and can reproduce themselves, believed to stem from bacteria that were engulfed by early cells.
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Describe the structure and function of the lysosome.
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Spherical membranous organelle, contains digestives enzymes, membrand has proton pumps to maintain acidic interior - maintains digestive enzymes to protect cell from damage, digests particles taken in my endocytosis, degrades worn out or nonfunctional organelles, performs metabolic processes, breakdown of non-useful tissues, breakdown bone to release calcium ions, are created from pinching off of golgi apparatus.
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Describe the structure and function of peroxisomes.
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Membranous sacs containing powerful enzymes (oxidases and catalases), neutralize free radicals, self replicating - do not come from golgi.
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Describe the structure and function of the centriole.
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Small barrel shaped organelle, series of nine triplets of microtubules, form basis of cilia and flagella.
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Describe the structure and function of the centrosome.
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Made of two centrioles at right angles to each other, microtubule organizing center, known for generation of microtubules and organizing mitotic spindle during cell division.
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Describe the structure and function of the cilia.
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Whiplike motile cellular extensions, move substances along cell surface.
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Describe the structure and function of the flagella.
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Longer than cilia, propel the cell itself (sperm).
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Describe the structure and function of microfilaments.
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Thin cytoskeletal strands, made of actin, most cells have network on cytoplasmic side of cell membrane, work with unconventional myosin to pinch one cell into two during cell division, responsible for crawling movements of amoebid movement and for membrane changes associated with endocytosis and exocytosis.
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Describe the structure and function of microtubules.
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Largest diameter of cytoskeletal strands, hollow tubes made of spherical protein subunits called tubulins, determine overall shape of cell and distribution of organelles, organelles constantly being pulled along microtubules.
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Describe the structure and function of intermediate filaments.
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Tough insoluble protein fibers, constructed like woven ropes, most stable and permanent of cytoskeletal threads, co not bind ATP or serve as tracks for movement, work as internal guy-wires to resist pulling forces exerted on cell.
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What is the fluid mosaic model?
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Depicts the plasma membrane as an exceedingly thin structure composed of a double layer of lipid molecules with protein molecules dispersed in it. Constantly changing mosaic pattern.
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What limits the size of a cell?
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The ratio of cell surface area to cell volume. The surface area of the plasma membrane becomes inadequate for nutrient and waste exchange when a cell reaches a certain critical size and then the cell divides.
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Name three elements of the cytoskeleton.
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Microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments.
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Describe tight junctions.
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Series of integral protein molecules of adjacent cells fuse together forming impermeable junctions that prevent molecules from passing through the extracellular space between adjacent cells.
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Describe desmosomes.
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Anchoring junctions, scattered like rivets along the sides of abutting cells, like the teeth of a zipper, distributes tension throughout a cellular sheet and reduces the chance of tearing.
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Describe gap junctions.
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Communicating junction between adjacent cells, connected by hollow cylinders called connexons, selectivity of the gap junction channels.
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What is osmosis?
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The diffusion of a solvent, such as water, through a selectively permeable membrane.
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What is active transport?
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Using energy to move solutes across the membrane. Requires carrier proteins that combine specifically and rebersibly. Move against the concentration gradient.
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What is diffusion?
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Tendancy of molecules or ions to scatter evenly throughout the environment. Tend to move down concentration gradient. Influenced by molecular size and temperature.
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What is facilitated diffusion?
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Binding to protein carriers in the membrane and "ferried" across or movement through water-filled protein channels.
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What is secondary active transport?
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Coupled systems moving more than one substance at a time. The two substances can move in the same direction or in opposite directions.
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What is an isotonic solution?
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One with the same osmotic pressure as within the cell. Same concentration of solute as within the cell.
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What is a hypertonic solution?
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One with higher osmotic pressure than within the cell. More concentration of solute than within the cell. Draws water out of the cell and shrinks (crenates) the cell.
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What is a hypotonic solution?
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One with lower osmotic pressure than within the cell. Lower concentration of solute than within the cell. Water is drawn into the cell and the cell will expand to the point of possible rupture of the membrane.
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What is exocytosis?
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Substance to be removed from cell is enclosed in membranous sac called vesicle. Fuses with membrane, then ruptures spilling contents out of the cell.
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What is endocytosis?
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Substances entering the cell through vesicles. Can be coated with either clathrin or caveolin.
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What are the three forms of clathrin coated vesicle transportation?
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Phagocytosis, pinocytosis, and receptor mediated endocytosis.
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What is phagocytosis?
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Cell extends around foreign body and engulfs it into the cell. "Cell eating"
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What is pinocytosis?
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Dip forms around fluid droplet and encloses. "Cell drinking"
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What is receptor mediated endocytosis?
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Substances bind to receptors then go through endocytosis by either phagocytosis or pinocytosis.
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What is the major difference betweeen clathrin and caveolin coated vesicles?
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The thickness of the wall of the vesicle and the size of the vesicle. Clathrin coated vesicles are thicker walled and larger vesicles overall.
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Name the stages of the cell cycle.
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Interphase and mitotic phase. Interphase is broken down into 3 substages called G1, S and G2. The mitotic phase is broken down into 5 substages prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis.
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What is happening in the 3 substages of interphase?
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In G1 the cell is growing.
In S the DNA is being synthesized. In G2 the cell is continuing to grow and prepare for division. |
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What is happening in prophase?
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Chromatin coils and condenses
Chromatids are held together by centromere and cohesin Nucleoli disappear Cytoskeletal microtubules disassemble Centriole pairs separate Mitiotic spindle forms Centrioles move toward poles Nuclear envelope fragments Kinetochores at centromere attach to spindles/tubules |
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What is happening in metaphase?
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Chromosomes are approaching the equator of the cell.
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What is happening during anaphase?
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Centromeres split as well as chromasomes
Microtubules pull chromosomes to the poles of the cell Cell enlongates toward poles See V-shaped chromosomes |
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What is happening during telophase?
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Chromatids uncoil into chromatin
New nuclear envelope if formed Nucleoli reform Spindle disappears |
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What is happening during cytokinesis?
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Cytoplasm separates into two cells, membrane pulled into middle, cleavage furrow formed by microfilaments.
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At what stage of the cell cycle is DNA replicated?
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S stage
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What are histones?
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Provide a physical means for packing DNA into compact orderly way and play an important role in gene regulation based on groups attached to histone pairs.
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Name the stages of mitosis in order.
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Interphase, Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase, and Cytokinesis.
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How many chromosomes are found in humans?
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46. 23 pairs - one from each parent
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What is a homologus chromosome?
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Make up one pair of human chromosomes. One from each parent.
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What are sister chromatids?
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During anaphase when chromatids are split and eventually go to sister cells.
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What is the mitotic spindle?
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Centrioles separate and microtubules are formed from them to attach to chromatids.
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What is karyotype?
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The diploid chromosomal complement typically shown as homologous chromosomes pairs arranged from longest to shortest.
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What is chromatin?
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System of bumpy threads weaving their way through nucleoplasm. 30% DNA 60% histone proteins and 10% RNA.
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Briefly describe transcription.
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Involves the tranfer of information from a DNA gene's base sequence to the complementary base sequence of an mRNA molecule. Once the mRNA molecule is made, it detaches and leaves the nucleus via a nuclear pore.
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Briefly describe translation.
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The language of nucleic acids is translated into the language of proteins. Binds to small ribosomal unit by rRNA. tRNA binds to the mRNA and holds the growing polypeptide chain. When complete the polypeptide chain is released.
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What are the three germ layers and how do these relate to different tissues?
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Ectoderm - outermost layer
Endoderm - innermost layer Mesoderm - intermediate layer Ectoderm becomes all nervous tissue, integument and some connective tissues. Mesoderm becomes all muscular tissues, most skeletal tissues, and all cardiovascular and lymphatic tissues. Endoderm becomes the linings of the major internal organs. |
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Name the four basic groups of tissues.
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Epithelium, connective, nervous and muscle.
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Epithelial tissues
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Location : body coverings, body linings, glandular tissue
Function : Protection, absorption, filtration, secretion Characteristics : Fit close together, one free surface, avascular, easy regeneration if well nourished |
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Connective tissues
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Location : found everywhere in the body
Functions : binds body tissues together, supports the body, protection Characteristics : 3 components - fibers, ground substance (matrix), and cells; vascularity varies. |
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Nervous tissues
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Location : brain, spinal cord
Funtions : generate and conduct nerve impulses, respond to stimuli Characteristics : branching cells with cytoplasmic extensions |
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Muscle tissues
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Location : skeletal muscles, cardiac wall, walls of hollow organs
Functions : responsible for most types of movement Characteristics : highly cellular, well vascularized, myofilaments, can be striated |
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What is the basement membrane?
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It is composed of the basal lmaina and the reticular lamina. It reinforces the epithelial sheet, helping it to resist stretching and tearing forces, and defines the epithelial boundary.
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What is a goblet cell?
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Cells that produce protective lubricating mucus. Get their name from their goblet shaped cups of mucus that occupy most of the apical cell volume.
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What are microvilli?
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Fingerlike extensions of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area of the epithelia.
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What is the lumen?
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Cavity inside a tube, blood vessel, or hollow organ.
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Give two subclasses of connective tissue proper.
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Loose : areolar, adipose, and reticular
Dense : dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic |
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How do bone and cartilage differ?
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Bone matrix is similar to that of cartilage but is harder and more rigid because, in addition to its more abundant collagen fibers, bond has an added matrix element - inorganic calcium salts.
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Name the three types of cartilage and where they can be found.
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Hyaline - most abundant in body, ends of long bonds, tip of nose, ribs to sternum. *Strongest type of cartilage.
Elastic - external ear and epiglottis Fibrocartilage - intervertebral discs, menisci of the knee |
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List examples of connective tissue proper.
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Fat, tendons, ligaments, under epithelia.
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List examples of fluid connective tissue.
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Blood, lymph
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List examples of supportive connective tissue.
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Cartilage, bone.
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What types of fibers are found in connective tissue?
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Collagen, elastic and reticular.
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What is ground substance?
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The unstructured material that fills the space between the cells and contains the fibers. It is composed of intersitial fluid, cell adhesion proteins, and proteoglycans.
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Name some cells that are associated with connective tissue.
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Fibroblast, fibrocyte, chondroblast, chondrocyte, osteoblast, osteocyte, hematopoietic stem cells, blood cells.
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What is a lacuna?
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A small space, cavity, or depression; lacunae in bone or cartilage are occupied by cells.
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What type of fibers are found in dense regular connective tissue? Where are they found?
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Bundles of collagen fibers. Ligaments and tendons.
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What type of fibers are found in dense irregular connective tissue? Where are they found?
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Thicker bundles of collagen fibers arranged irregularily. Found in the dermis and fibrous capsules lining the joints.
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Where do you find areolar connective tissue?
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Under the epithelia. Packaging the organs.
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What fiber types and what cells are found in areolar connective tissue?
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Reticular, collagen and elastic fibers. The cells in areolar connective tissue are mostly fibroblasts but occasionally you will find macrophages, fat cells, and mast cells.
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What are some functions of adipose tissue?
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Nutrient storage, insulation, shock absorption/protection.
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What is the matrix like in adipose tissue?
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Minimal amounts of the matrix. Mostly the fat cells themselves.
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Name some common locations where fat is often stored.
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Under the skin, around the kidneys, behind the eyeballs, in the abdomen, in the breasts.
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Describe reticular connective tissue.
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Network of reticular fibers allowing for fibroblasts to bond to. Labyrinth like stroma/internal framework.
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Where do you find reticular connective tissue?
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Lymph nodes, spleen, bone marrow.
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What is blood considered to be connective tissue?
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Because it connects the body physiologically rather than physically.
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Name some cell types found in blood.
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RBC - erythrocytes
WBC - neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils. |
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Are RBC prokaryotic or eukaryotic?
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Even though RBC do not contain a nucleus - they had one at one point in their development before ejecting it so they are still considered to be eukaryotic.
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