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211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Aristotle's 2 Kingdom system
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plantae-didnt move but had life
animalia-does move and has life |
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5 Kingdom classification
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plants, animals, fungi, protista, and monera
protista=eukaryotes monera=prokaryotes |
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3 Domain system
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Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya
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archaea
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aka "extremophiles"; prokaryotes that tend to live in extreme conditions
halophiles=salt-loving thermophiles=heat-loving |
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bacteria
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highly diverse group, representing every major mode of nutrition and metabolism BUT not morphologically that diverse
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5 Kingdom vs. 3 Domain
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5 kingdom system not monophyletic, it is paraphyletic
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autotroph
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require inorganic compounds as carbon source; makes their own energy
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photoautotroph
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make energy from light
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chemoautotroph
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make energy from chemicals (usually by oxidizing inorganic compounds)
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heterotroph
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reguire at least one organic nutrient
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fungi characteristics
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eukaryotes
non-motile filamentous absorptive mode of nutrition cell walls contain chitin life cycle includes spores heterotrophic decomposers unicellular and multicellular |
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hyphae
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filaments
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mycelium (pl. mycelia)
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many hyphae together, i.e. the main body of the fungus
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mycorrhizal associations
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between the fungus and the roots of the plant in a mutualistic relationship
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ectomycorrhizae
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over surface of root and in the extracellular space
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arbuscular mycorrhizae
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branching hyphae that go throught the cell wall BUT not the membrane
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chytridiomycota
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have flagellated spores
occur in soil/lakes originally classified as protists parisitize amphibians |
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zygomycota
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many mold
have no cross-walls in hyphae spore-shooting dispersal |
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glomeromycota
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nearly all form arbuscular mycorrhizae
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ascomycota
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aka sac fungi
about 40% forms lichens spores produced in a sac-like structure called an "ascus"(pl. asci), can form a collection of asci in an "ascocarp" unicellular and multicellular |
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basidiomycota
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aka club fungi
technical name for mushroom is "basidiocarp" spores born in basidia (sing. basidium) most common form of ectomycorrhizae |
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deuteromycota
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aka fungi imperfect/imperfect fungi since reproductive stage is unidentified because it is asexual
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oomycota
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water molds BUT more closely related to kelp, has caused many oak deaths
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haploid
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n; one set of chromosomes
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diploid
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2n; two sets of chromosomes
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plasmogamy
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fusion of cytoplasm
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karyogamy
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fusion of nuclei
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importance of fungi
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symbionts--lichen and mycorrhiza
decomposers pathogens |
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lichen
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symbiotic association between fungus (usually an acsomycete) and alga (sometimes cyanobacteria are also involved)
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seridia (sing. seredium)
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cluster of hyphae with embedded algae (asexual)
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importance of fungi to humans
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food
causing disease preventing disease |
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algae
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polyphyletic group of former protists that photosynthesize, typically living in water and including both unicellular and multicellular organisms
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plankton
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free floating/drifting organisms
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theory of endosymbiosis
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posits that mitochondria and plastids were formally small prokaryotes that began to live in larger cells; the "pac-man" theory
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plastids
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general term for chloroplasts and related organelles for photosynthesis
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evidence for theory of endosymbiosis
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size
replication ribosomes antibiotics genomes |
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secondary symbiosis
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4 membranes
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evolution of photosynthesis
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1. single orgin of chloroplast by means of primary endosymbiosis
2. multiple orgins of chloroplasts by means of secondary endosymbiosis results in plastids in different phyletic groups |
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blue-green algae
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cyanobacteria
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dinoflagellates
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have flagella
form red tides bioluminescence |
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euglenoids
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former protists (best known flagellated unicellular algae)
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diatoms
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silica shells
phytoplankton to diatomaceous earth |
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golden algae
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carotenoid pigment
some colonial species |
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brown algae
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related to diatoms
always multicellular common on tmeperate coasts |
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red algae
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evolve in deep ocean
phycoerythtin pigment |
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green algae
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pigment and cellular structure similar to land plants (sister group)
similar life cycle of land plants--alternation of generations life cycle |
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alternation of generations
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alternations between a multicellular haploid(gametophyte) and a multicellular diploid phase(sporophyte)
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economic importance of algae
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polysaccharides
carrageenan agar nori bio-fuels |
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challenges of land
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dessication
increasd sunlight and UV exposure gravity wind |
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mechanisms for coping with the challenges of land
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protection from dessication/increased sunlight since the embryo is retained on the parent plant
internal transport support and anchorage |
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bryophytes
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main groups:
mosses liverworts hornworts characteristics: dessication tolerant require water for fertilization main mode of dispersal is the spore absorb water and nutrients throughout the plant body lack true roots "non-vascular land plants" used as terrestrial bioindicators |
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archegonium (pl. archegonia)
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structure where eggs are produced
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antheridium (pl. antheridia)
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structure where sperm are produced
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sporangium (pl. sporangia)
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stucture where spores are produced
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economic importance of mosses
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peat
sphagium is good at absorbing miscellaneous medicinal uses |
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vascular plants
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evolved about 420 mya; possess vascular tissue that transport water and nutrients throughout plant body
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change in vascular plants
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increasing dominance of sporophyte generation
creation of support structures change in ways gametes are dispersed (less and less reliance on water) |
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Pteridophytes
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seedless vascular plants
main groups: lycophytes ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns |
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homospory
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one kind of spore is produced, typically makes a bisexual gametophyte
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heterospory
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two kinds of spores are made, often from different kinds of sporangia and different sporophylls (usually distinguished as mega- and micro-
- megaspore produces female megagametophyte - microspore produces male microgametophyte |
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carboniferous
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where strata high in carbon causing extensive forests of pteridophytes so decrease in carbon in atmosphere causing global cooling, occurred near the end of the Paleozoic (350-290 mya)
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gymnosperms
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"naked" seed, about 800 species of vascular plants with seeds
main groups: conifers gingko gnetophytes cycads |
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changes in gymnosperm life cycle
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reduction in gametophyte generation since gametophyte dependent on sporophyte
evolution of pollen so fertilization no longer dependent on on water evolution of the seed so the female gametophyte and embryo protected, allows embryo to remain dormant, and can be dispersed |
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life cycle of pines
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all gymnosperms are heterosporous, so there are megasporophyll-megasporangia-megaspores-megagametophyte and microsporophyll-microsporangia-microspores-microgametophyte
tend to have strobili seed preceded by ovule |
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strobili (sing. strobilus)
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specialized reproductive structures that are composed of these = cone
megasporangiate strobilus=female cone microsporanfiate strobilus=male cone |
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ovule
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megasporangium and its contents surrouded by a protectve layer called an integument
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seed
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fertilized ovule
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angiosperm
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"seed-in-a-container", aka flowering plants; most diverse group of land plants that make up approximately 90% of all land plants and 250,000 species, flowers appear about 140 mya
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flower
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a determinate axis with 4 sets of specialized leaves; unit of sexual reproduction in angiosperms
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determinate
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lacks capability for further growth
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sepals
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modified leaf that encloses the flower in bud, often green; collectively called the calyx; sterile appendage
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petals
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modified leaf, usually for the attraction of pollinators, often colored; collectively called carolla; sterile appendage
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stamens
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produce pollen(i.e. microspore/microgametophyte), modified microsporophyll=fertile; collectively called the androecium
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carpels
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produce and contain ovules(which yeild seeds), modified megasporophyll=fertile; collectively called the gynoecium
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anther
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where pollon is produced
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stigma
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often sticky spot where pollon lands
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ovary
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contains ovules
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inflorescence
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collection of flowers custered together
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perfect flowers
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have all floral whorls
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imperfect flowers
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lack either stamens(=female)/carpels(=male)
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monoecious
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imperfect flowers, both sexes on same plant
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dioecious
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imperfect flowers, sexes on different plants
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double fertilization
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1. one sperm fertilizes egg to make a diploid zygote
2. another sperm fuses with two polar nuclei to produce a triploid, which will divide to make an endosperm |
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mechanisms to prevent self-fertilization
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self-incompatibility
dioecy different position of anther and stigma (heterostyly) different timing of anther opening and stigma receptiveness |
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evolutionary changes within angiosperms
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reduction in floral parts
fusion of different parts change in symmetry of flower (from radical to bilateral) extra protection for the ovary |
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fruit
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mature ovary of a flower, usually containing seeds and may also include adjacent parts to the flower that became fused
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pericarp
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fruit wall=mature ovary wall
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simple fruit
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from a single flower, with a single carpel/fused carpels
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aggregate fruit
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from a single flower, with multiple (unfused) carpels
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multiple fruit
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from an inflorescence with multiple carpels
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cotyledons
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seed leaves (when first sprouting)
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monocot
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has one cotyledon
endosperm still present coleoptile epicotyl hypocotyl radicle |
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eudicot
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has two cotyledon
endosperm has been absorbed by cotyledons epicotyl hypocotyl radicle |
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angiosperm diversity
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250,000 species due to pollinators who increase the chance of speciation occuring
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epicotyl
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shoot above cotyledons
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hypocotyl
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shoot portion below cotyledons but above the radicle
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radicle
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embryotic root
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coleoptile
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only present in monocots; functions to protect seedling as it emerges from the ground
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plant anatomy
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internal structure, usually cellular structure
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plant morphology
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external form, usually larger scale
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parenchyma
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alive at maturity
thin-walled most common type of cell |
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collenchyma
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alive at maturity
primary wall is thickened to better support young tissue and still enable some extent of flexibility |
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schlerenchyma
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dead at maturity
secondary wall is thickened and often lignified |
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sclerids
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short for protection/defense
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fibers
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longer for support
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dermal tissue
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outer protective coating of the plant
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epidermis
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outermost layer of cells
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cuticle
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waxy coating that covers epidermis
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stomata (sing. stoma)
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openings in epidermis that function for gas exchange
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guard cells
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border stomata, functions to open/close the stoma
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trichomes
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an outgrowth of the epidermis
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vascular tissue
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carries out transport
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xylem
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transports water and minerals, cells dead at maturity and have thickened walls
types: vessels tracheids |
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vessels
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tube-like, arranged end-to-end, connected by porforations, only found in angiosperms
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tracheids
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long, thin with tapered ends, found in all vascular plants
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phloem
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transports sugars, cells alive at maturity
type: sieve-tube elements |
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sieve-tube elements
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tube-like cell stacked end-to-end
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companion cell
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associated with all sieve-tube elements and helps maintain the sieve-tube elements
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ground tissue
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everything else that isn't vascular or dermal tissue
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pith
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internal to vascular tissue
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cortex
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external to vascular tissue
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stem
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main axis of plant
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node
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point of leaf attachment
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internode
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part of stem between nodes
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leaf
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main photosynthetic organ
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axillary bud
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bud in "armpit" of leaf, becomes a lateral stem
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apical bud
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bud at apex of shoot
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interdeterminate growth
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continued ability to grow due to meristem
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meristem
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undifferentiated, perpetually young plant tissue from which new cells arrive
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apical meristem
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at tip of roots/shoot
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shoot apical meristem
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established in embryo
leaf primordia bud primordia responsible for indeterminate growth in length ultimatly, all tissues made by SAM(or root apical meristem) early tissue made by SAM are undifferentiated |
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leaf primordia
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becomes a leaf and helps protect the SAM
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bud primordia
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becomes axillary buds that can go out and become a branch
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early tissue made by SAM
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protoderm=forms drmal tissue
procambrian=forms vascular tissue ground meristem=forms ground tissue |
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phyllotaxis
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pattern of leaf arrangement in shoot
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simple leaf
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single, undivided blade
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compound leaf
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blade divided into multiple leaflets, lack axillary buds
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venation
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pattern of veins
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mesophyll
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aka parenchyma, ground tissue of a leaf
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palisade mesophyll
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on upperside of leaf, tightly packed, site of photosynthesis
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spongy mesophyll
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on lower side of leaf, loosely packed, allows movement of gases
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rhizome
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horizontal, underground stem
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bulb
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underground, stem with reduced internodes and specialized leaves used for storage
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stolon
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horizontal stem, usually specialized for asexual reproduction ("runner")
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tuber
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underground stem used for storage
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tendril
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slender coiling structure used for climbing
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spines
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sharp and pointy, used for defense
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storage
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large succulent specialized for storage
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insect capture
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captures insects
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secondary growth
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growth in width as a result of lateral meristem
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primary growth
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growth in length as a result of apical meristem
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vascular cambium
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makes secondary vascular tissues (i.e. secondary xylem, secondary phloem)
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cork cambium
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makes secondary dermal tissue ("periderm"), main product is "cork"
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cork
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consists of cells impregnated with suberin
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suberin
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impervious to gases and water (prevents their movement)
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rays
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allow for lateral transport, consist of radial files of cells that connect secondary xylem to secondary phloem
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bark
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all tissues external to vascular cambium = secondary phloem, cork cambium, periderm
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lenticels
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small raised area on periderm that allows for gas exchange
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wood
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secondary xylem
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heart wood
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secondary xylem near center of stem; no longer functional, also serving as a "garbage dump" of waste metabolites of plant
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sap wood
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secondary xylem near outside of trunk; functional
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monocots do not have secondary growth
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become trees through leaf bases that persist on stem/tissue may become enlarged and/or lignified/roots produced near leaves grow down stem
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modifications of roots
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prop roots
storage roots buttress roots "strangler" roots "snorkel" roots |
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apoplast
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in area between cells, in region of cell wall
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symplast
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inside of cell membrane--"the continuum of cytoplasm"
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plasmodesmata (sing. plasmodesma)
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small opening within the symplast
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Casparian strip
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band of suberin around endodermal cells
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nodules
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swelling in root that houses nitrogen-fixing bacteria
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macronutrients
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nutrients that are required in relatively large amounts
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micronutrients
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nutrients that are required in trace amounts, mainly function as cofactors in enzymatic reactions
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examples of macronutrients
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C, H, O, P, K, N, S, Fe, Ca, Mg
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mobile nutrients
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can move freely in a plant
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immobile plants
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cannont move freely within a plant
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nutrient deficiency
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lack of some of macronutrients/micronutrients with symptoms varying according to whether nutrition is mobile or immobile
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symptoms of nutrient deficiency
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mobile-older leaves noticable first
immobile-younger leaves noticable first |
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passive transport
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diffusion=movement of solute in direction of electrochemical gradient, from region of higher concentration to lower concentration
osmosis=diffusion of water |
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active transport
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pumping of solute across a membrane against electrochemical gradient, therefore energy must be used
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bulk flow
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movement of fluid driven by pressure, usually used for long-distance transport
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water potential
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potential of water to move from one region to another, expressed in megapascals (MPa)
-water tends to move in direction of more negative water potential |
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water potential components
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solute concentration, which becomes more negative with higher solute concentration
pressure, which is positive when cell membrane pushes against the movement of water and negative when water is being pulled in the xylem |
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turgor pressure
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positive pressure
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turgid
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higher concentration outside cell and lower concentration inside, resulting in the movement of water into the cell and the swelling of the cell
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plasmolyzed
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inside of cell has higher concentration that the outside, so that cell undergoes plasmolysis where the cell membrane is shrunken in from the cell wall
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transpiration
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movement of water through plant as a result of evaporative loss of water from leaves
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transpiration-cohesion-tension mechanism
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transpirational pull causes cohesive water molecules to move up the xylem from the roots to the leaves, resulting in pressure gradient causing bulk flow of water and dissolve nutrients
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cavitation
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air bubble forms in xylem that causes the hydrogen bonds to break and prevents the shoot from pulling water up shoot, results in the plant drying out and usually caused by dry soil
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source sites
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photosynthetic, so where sugars are actively transported into phloem
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sink sites
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where sugars are passively unloaded
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pressure flow model
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the site with higher concentration (and therefore higher concentration solution) will passively diffuse in direction of lower concentration solution
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phloem transport
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1. sugars are actively loaded from source sites into sieve tubes
2. water diffuses in sieve tubes near the source sites 3. intake of water generates pressure which pushes sap 4. sugars passively unloaded at sink site 5. water diffuses away at the sink sites |
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blue-light receptors
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respond to blue light
- induces a variety of responses: phototropism stomata opening slow elongation of the hypocotyls |
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phytochromes
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respond to red and far-red light
- effects are reversible - induce a variety of responses: seed germination shade avoidance biological clocks/circadian rhythm |
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circadian rhythm
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physiological cycle of 24 hours that is present in ALL eukaryotes
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biological clock
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means of keeping time in biological organisms
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photoperiodism
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physiological response to relative length of night and day
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control of flowering
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Flower when days are short (determined by phytochromes)= short day plants = long night plants (in regards to uninterrupted darkness)
Flower when days are long (determined by phytochromes)= long day plants = short night plants (in regards to uninterrupted darkness) Flower upon maturity, not affected by amount of light (determined by phytochromes)= day neutral plants |
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florigen
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grafting experiments have indicated of a flower inducing substance made in response to day/night length
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plant hormones
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aka plant growth regulators, organic compounds that modify/control 1/more physiological processes within a plant (in low concentrations BUT may have many effects)
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hormonal balance
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response to a given hormone is less dependent on concentration of individual hormone and more dependent on relative concentrations of different hormones
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1st plant hormone
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discovered by Charles and Francis Darwin involving coleoptile >>> phototropic response
- later discovered that the phototropic response is a chemical that induces growth and bending growth occurs if chemical is distributed asymmetrically |
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auxin
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the first plant hormone discovered
aka indoleacetic acid (I.A.A.) promotes elongation of coleoptiles (& stems in general) and apical dominance |
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differential sensitivity
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different plant parts are sensitive to different concentrations of plant outgrowth
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cytokinins
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promotes cell division and differentiation & lateral bud outgrowth
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ratio of cytokinin to auxin
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high cytokinin:auxin=shoot developement
low cytokinin:auxin=root developement |
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gibberellins
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promotes stem elongation and fruit enlargement
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brassinosteroids
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functions similar to auxin
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abscisic acid
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aka ABA
promotes seed dormancy and stomatal closure |
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effects of levels of ABA
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high ABA=seed is dormant
low ABA=seed germinates |
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ethylene
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promotes leaf abscission and fruit ripening, in gaseous form
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leaf abscission
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leaves fall off
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summary of plant hormones
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1. can have a variety of effects
2. contrasting effects (differential sensitivity) 3. often act together (hormonal balance) |
