Bio Chapters 3,4,5

Has a minimum of carbon and hydrogen

Very greatly and size and structure due to carbon’s ability to form up to for single covalent bonds

The core of an organic compound : usually a series of carbon atoms bonded to each other and bonded to hydrogen’s on the side

A small group of atoms sticking out of a large organic molecules

And therefore react with other molecules they give the organic molecule thay Part of most of its properties

A big organic molecule

Made of repeated subunits (like a train) at least five repeated

The subunit (or a building block of a polymer) Monomers are medium size molecules

One glycerol and three fatty acid’s

Protein

In order to add a monomer to a polymer one H2O must be ejected dehydration means to lose water synthesis means to build or assemble

In order to break off a monomer from a polymer one H2O must be inserted Hydro meaning water lyses means break or bust

Molecules with the same molecular formula but different structures in there for different properties

In organic molecule made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

N(CH2O)

These are monomers of all other carbohydrates they contain 3 to 6 carbons

Functions Pinto sugars are parts of the monomers of RNA and DNA hexose sugars are the monomers of disaccharides and polysaccharides they also supply quick energy

All energy foods must be converted to glucose before their energy is released released examples sugar starch fats oils and proteins

Two monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis the function is a quick burst of energy

Five or more monosaccharides

Function what is stored energy takes a long time to break down all the bonds

Made by animals stored in liver and muscles structure highly branched version of starch

If blood glucose levels are too high it’s called hyperglycemia

if blood glucose levels are too low it’s called hypoglycemia

Insulin Paul’s extra sugar and regulate it in stores it in the liver and muscles

Function is to give structure to a cell or a whole organism

Made by plants found in cell walls

Structure chain of about 200 glucose units

note: starch comes in two forms on branch amylose and branch amylopectin

Starch and cellulose are two very similar polymers. In fact, they are both made from the same monomer, glucose, and have the same glucose-based repeat units. There is only one difference. In starch, all the glucose repeat units are oriented in the same direction

is found in Metamucil and fruits and vegetables it cleans out the colon and prevents colon cancer

It regulates bowel movements unhealthy diarrhea acts like a sponge and absorb the water for constipation it draws water and two: by osmosis structure straight chain of many glucose unit cellulose on the top starch on the

is found in meta-Meusel fruits and vegetables it cleans out the colon and prevent colon cancer

It regulates bowel movements unhealthy diarrhea acts like a sponge and absorb the water for constipation it draws water and two: by osmosis structure straight chain of many glucose unit

To Digest cellulose an enzyme has to fit over pairs of glucose units to break their bonds cents each glucose is upside down compared to its neighbors did that enzyme simply doesn’t fit

Found in the exoskeletons and found in the cell walls of fungi

they contain carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen

Contains carbon and hydrogen in a 1 to 2 ratio and contains very little oxygen all lipids are hydrophobic which does not dissolve in water it repels water because the lack of oxygen

Lipids are hydrophobic and sellable and non polar solvents because they have so few oxygen atoms

oxygen is highly electronegative and makes molecules polar

They all yelled more than twice the energy program as do carbohydrates neutral fat have one guys are all +12 or three fatty acids mono die and triglyceride

One glycerol (polymer) and three fatty acid’s (monomer)

Two electrons being shared

Saturated fats yes

unsaturated fats no

Saturated fats no

unsaturated fat yes

Saturated fats no

unsaturated fat yes

Saturated fats yes all fatty acids or straight parallel

unsaturated fats no fatty acids are fluffy

Saturated fats solid fats

unsaturated fat’s liquid oil

Saturated fats yes

Unsaturated fat’s less so

Unsaturated fat fluffy a symmetrical and packed together

Why are saturated fats more dangerous

saturated with hydrogen

where the gap come from double bond between Carbons

Stores energy

insulates against heat loss

acts as a cushion around organs to prevent physical injury

Made of and supply carbon hydrogen oxygen and nitrogen and sometimes sulfur

one of 20 has sulfur

supplies energy

causes movement (alot per cell) and cytoplasmic (muscles Cilia Flagella )

Select what enters and leaves a cell

all enzymes which speed up reactions are made of proteins

scabs are External blood clots that are made of proteins

some hormones are proteins chemical messengers

acts as an on off switch is for genes in DNA

Monomers are amino acids

20 in animal kingdom

Is the bond that forms between two amino acids

8 kilo calories

Four kilo calories

1° structure a list of which amino acids Are in a poly peptide and in what order

2° structure either in accordion like folding (pleated sheet) or a spiral shape (alpha helix) held together by week hydrogen bonds between neighboring amino acids

3° structure twisting and turning of a polypeptide around in through its self caused by various bonds often between distant amino acids

4 degree structure just like tertiary but this refers to a branched protein

Changing the shape by breaking it’s weaker bonds but not its chemical composition causes extreme heat 75°C

changing the PH environment

changing the salinity saltiness

They are RNA and DNA

Contains the genetic code which is a blueprint for how your body develops from conception to adulthood and maintain your genetic traits once they develop

Jeans on DNA respond to incoming information by telling the cell to make or stop making enzymes on a moment by moment basis therefore genes control everything about your metabolism via enzymes

DNA is the only noon molecule that can copy it self so when cells make new cells DNA is passed on

When cells produce gametes (sperm is in eggs) and they fertilize each other the genetic code is passed on to the next generation (heredity)

Messenger RNA (mRNA) Copies the code from a single gene (transcription) and brings it out of the cells nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Ribosomes the organelles that put together amino acids to make a polypeptide are made of this

Transfer RNA (tRNA) Each tRNA is designed to pick up a specific amino acid from the cytoplasm and bring it back to the ribosome as per instructions on the mRNA as it threads its way through the ribosome

Back (Definition)

Gluciotides

RNA alpha helix (single spiral of nucleotides)

DNA double helix (2parallel spiral of nucleotides joined in the middle by pairs of nitrogen bases)

RNA - ribose

DNA - deoxyribose

RNA - adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), guanine (G)

DNA adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)

Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine with Guanine

The part of the DNA molecule which codes for one polypeptide (unbranched protein)

Note : Genes are the functional subunits of DNA nucleotides are the structural subunits of DNA

Looking at one side of the DNA molecule three successive nitrogen us bases on three nucleotides code for one amino acid

Surrounded by a plasma (cell) membrane

cytoplasm everything inside plasma membrane

cytosol equals H2O plus various ions/molecules dissolve or suspend a 92% H2O

Organelles

Cytoskeleton network of protein fibers used for support and movement

Gluciotides

1 Surface. Volume

side area(l•w). (l•w•h)

1 M. 6 M^2 1 M^3

10 M. 600 M^2. 1000M^3

Difference. Increases. Increases

10 x. 100X. 1000X

As a cell gets bigger it’s volume represented by number of organelles increases much faster than its surface area plasma membrane at some point the membrane can no longer supply all the organelles nutrients gases and waste removal so the cell dies

Scheldon and Schwann(1930s)

1. All living things are made of cells

2. Cells are the building blocks of life: all characteristics of life occur at the cellular level

Virchow (1880s)

Spontaneous generation the idea that life can arise from nonliving matter is false life comes from life/cells from other cells

For kilo calories

Back (Definition)

1° structure a list of which amino acids Are in a poly peptide and in what order

2° structure either in accordion like folding (pleated sheet) or a spiral shape (alpha helix) held together by week hydrogen bonds between neighboring amino acids

3° structure twisting and turning of a polypeptide around in through its self caused by various bonds often between distant amino acids

For degree structure just like tertiary but this refers to a branched protein

Changing the shape by breaking it’s weaker bonds but not its chemical composition causes extreme heat 75°C

changing the PH environment

changing the salinity saltiness

They are RNA and DNA

Is the bond that forms between two amino acids

8 kilo calories

4 kilo calories

1° structure a list of which amino acids Are in a poly peptide and in what order

2° structure either in accordion like folding (pleated sheet) or a spiral shape (alpha helix) held together by week hydrogen bonds between neighboring amino acids

3° structure twisting and turning of a polypeptide around in through its self caused by various bonds often between distant amino acids

For degree structure just like tertiary but this refers to a branched protein

Changing the shape by breaking it’s weaker bonds but not its chemical composition causes extreme heat 75°C

changing the PH environment

changing the salinity saltiness

They are RNA and DNA

Contains the genetic code which is a blueprint for how your body develops from conception to adulthood and maintain your genetic traits once they develop

Jeans on DNA respond to incoming information by telling the cell to make or stop making enzymes on a moment by moment basis therefore genes control everything about your metabolism via enzymes

DNA is the only noon molecule that can copy it self so when cells make new cells DNA is passed on

When cells produce gametes (sperm is in eggs) and they fertilize each other the genetic code is passed on to the next generation (heredity)

Messenger RNA (mRNA) Copies the code from a single gene (transcription) and brings it out of the cells nucleus to ribosomes in the cytoplasm

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Ribosomes the organelles that put together amino acids to make a polypeptide are made of this

Transfer RNA (tRNA) Each tRNA is designed to pick up a specific amino acid from the cytoplasm and bring it back to the ribosome as per instructions on the mRNA as it threads its way through the ribosome

Gluciotides

RNA alpha helix (single spiral of nucleotides)

DNA double helix (2parallel spiral of nucleotides joined in the middle by pairs of nitrogen bases)

RNA - ribose

DNA - deoxyribose

RNA - adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (C), guanine (G)

DNA adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G)

Adenine pairs with thymine and cytosine with Guanine

The part of the DNA molecule which codes for one polypeptide (unbranched protein)

Note : Genes are the functional subunits of DNA nucleotides are the structural subunits of DNA

Looking at one side of the DNA molecule three successive nitrogen us bases on three nucleotides code for one amino acid

Surrounded by a plasma (cell) membrane

cytoplasm everything inside plasma membrane

cytosol equals H2O plus various ions/molecules dissolve or suspend a 92% H2O

Organelles

Cytoskeleton network of protein fibers used for support and movement

1. Molecules are received on the plasma membrane and diffuse across the cell into the nucleus and turn on a gene

2. mRNA Must diffuse out of the nucleus and tell a ribosome which protein make diffusion across the cytosol is slow so if a cell were too big you couldn’t give a timely response to a stimulus

1 Surface. Volume

side area(l•w). (l•w•h)

1 M. 6 M^2 1 M^3

10 M. 600 M^2. 1000M^3

Difference. Increases. Increases

10 x. 100X. 1000X

As a cell gets bigger it’s volume represented by number of organelles increases much faster than its surface area plasma membrane at some point the membrane can no longer supply all the organelles nutrients gases and waste removal so the cell dies

Scheldon and Schwann(1930s)

1. All living things are made of cells

2. Cells are the building blocks of life: all characteristics of life occur at the cellular level

Virchow (1880s)

Spontaneous generation the idea that life can arise from nonliving matter is false life comes from life/cells from other cells

Only possessed by Bacteria (Kingdom Monera)

Cytoskeleton is absent

Cell membrane has numerous infoldings specialized for complex chemical reactions appear to be evolving into organelles

DNA not contained in a nucleus “naked” DNA not wrapped around proteins so it’s not called a Chromosome

DNA forms a circle

Organelles no membrane bound organelles but they do have ribosomes

These have membrane bound organelles human

Earliest fossils were found 1.5 billion years ago examples algae And protozoa

Everything that’s not bacteria has eukaryotic cells

There are thousands of cilia per cell and one or two flagella Per cell a 9+2 arrangement

Diffusion

volume increases the faster than surface volume surface

outer plasma membrane

Works like spokes on a bicycle wheel

Spindle fibers

Microfilament is the thinnest kind has a sliding action contracts relax creates current

Microtubules are used for separating chromosomes during cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels extending from nuclear pores to throughout the cytoplasm functions as a highway to transport materials through a cell

Is Dotted with tiny ribosomes giving it rough

Since ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis the rough ER specializes in making and transporting proteins

Produces and transports lipids and complex carbohydrates

Smooth ER gets rid of excess cholesterol and detoxifies poisons by making them soluble in water so they can be excreted in the urine

Works like spokes on a bicycle wheel

Spindle fibers

Microfilament is the thinnest kind has a sliding action contracts relax creates current

Microtubules are used for separating chromosomes during cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels extending from nuclear pores to throughout the cytoplasm functions as a highway to transport materials through a cell

Is Dotted with tiny ribosomes giving it rough

Since ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis the rough ER specializes in making and transporting proteins

Produces and transports lipids and complex carbohydrates

Smooth ER gets rid of excess cholesterol and detoxifies poisons by making them soluble in water so they can be excreted in the urine

Structure stack of flatten C shaped pancakes (cysternae) which receive transport vesicles and send out secretory vesicles

Receives crude products from rough and smooth ER by transport vesicles

Thins off secretory vesicles for secretion from the plasma membrane Via exocytosis

Works like spokes on a bicycle wheel

Spindle fibers

Microfilament is the thinnest kind has a sliding action contracts relax creates current

Microtubules are used for separating chromosomes during cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels extending from nuclear pores to throughout the cytoplasm functions as a highway to transport materials through a cell

Is Dotted with tiny ribosomes giving it rough

Since ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis the rough ER specializes in making and transporting proteins

Produces and transports lipids and complex carbohydrates

Smooth ER gets rid of excess cholesterol and detoxifies poisons by making them soluble in water so they can be excreted in the urine

Structure stack of flatten C shaped pancakes (cysternae) which receive transport vesicles and send out secretory vesicles

Receives crude products from rough and smooth ER by transport vesicles

Thins off secretory vesicles for secretion from the plasma membrane Via exocytosis

Combines crude products into many refined products

refining putting together two or more complex

Or sacs filled with digestive enzymes

In some white blood cells lysosomes join with food vacuoles formed by Phagocytosis to digest bacteria or cancer cells (solid) Autophagy digestion and recycling of old cell parts (eat yourself) autolysis digestion of wholesale when it ages and all of its membrane’s including those of lysosomes began to fall apart (Blow self up)

programmed cell death a Apoptosis

Works like spokes on a bicycle wheel

Spindle fibers

Microfilament is the thinnest kind has a sliding action contracts relax creates current

Microtubules are used for separating chromosomes during cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels extending from nuclear pores to throughout the cytoplasm functions as a highway to transport materials through a cell

Is Dotted with tiny ribosomes giving it rough

Since ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis the rough ER specializes in making and transporting proteins

Produces and transports lipids and complex carbohydrates

Smooth ER gets rid of excess cholesterol and detoxifies poisons by making them soluble in water so they can be excreted in the urine

Structure stack of flatten C shaped pancakes (cysternae) which receive transport vesicles and send out secretory vesicles

Receives crude products from rough and smooth ER by transport vesicles

Thins off secretory vesicles for secretion from the plasma membrane Via exocytosis

Combines crude products into many refined products

refining putting together two or more complex

Or sacs filled with digestive enzymes

In some white blood cells lysosomes join with food vacuoles formed by Phagocytosis to digest bacteria or cancer cells (solid) Autophagy digestion and recycling of old cell parts (eat yourself) autolysis digestion of wholesale when it ages and all of its membrane’s including those of lysosomes began to fall apart (Blow self up)

programmed cell death a Apoptosis

Site of aerobic cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release its energy to ATP

ATP is the molecule that can give glucose is energy to the cell to do work

Site of photosynthesis uses light water and carbon dioxide waste oxygen

Works like spokes on a bicycle wheel

Spindle fibers

Microfilament is the thinnest kind has a sliding action contracts relax creates current

Microtubules are used for separating chromosomes during cell division

The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of channels extending from nuclear pores to throughout the cytoplasm functions as a highway to transport materials through a cell

Is Dotted with tiny ribosomes giving it rough

Since ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis the rough ER specializes in making and transporting proteins

Produces and transports lipids and complex carbohydrates

Smooth ER gets rid of excess cholesterol and detoxifies poisons by making them soluble in water so they can be excreted in the urine

Structure stack of flatten C shaped pancakes (cysternae) which receive transport vesicles and send out secretory vesicles

Receives crude products from rough and smooth ER by transport vesicles

Thins off secretory vesicles for secretion from the plasma membrane Via exocytosis

Combines crude products into many refined products

refining putting together two or more complex

Or sacs filled with digestive enzymes

In some white blood cells lysosomes join with food vacuoles formed by Phagocytosis to digest bacteria or cancer cells (solid) Autophagy digestion and recycling of old cell parts (eat yourself) autolysis digestion of wholesale when it ages and all of its membrane’s including those of lysosomes began to fall apart (Blow self up)

programmed cell death a Apoptosis

Site of aerobic cellular respiration

Cellular respiration is the process of breaking down glucose to release its energy to ATP

ATP is the molecule that can give glucose is energy to the cell to do work

Site of photosynthesis uses light water and carbon dioxide waste oxygen.

Complete opposite of chlorophyll which is light+ H2O +CO2 equals glucose+02 which is the point of photosynthesis

Catalase breaks into H2O and O2

Site of destroying hydrogen peroxide H2O2 a toxic byproduct of fat metabolism H202, a a toxic byproduct of fat metabolism H202➡️H2O2+O2 (Catalase enzyme)

Also the site where antioxidants like vitamin C neutralize the + charge of accidents or free radicals like H30+ which might otherwise cause cancer

Can cause mutations in DNA

Network of fine cables throughout the cytoplasm each cable is made of proteins

Network of fine cables throughout the cytoplasm each cable is made of proteins

Maintains shape of cell by spanning cytoplasm and attaching to plasma membrane like spokes of the wheel

Are the thinnest type

they can contract in order to move muscles

change cell shape by forming pseudopods in white blood cells and amoebas cause cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

Are the thickest type they can also contract in order to pull chromosomes apart during cell division called spindle fibers and move Cilia and flagella

If you don’t see under the microscope it’s dead

Are the thinnest type

they can contract in order to move muscles

change cell shape by forming pseudopods in white blood cells and amoebas cause cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

If you don’t see under the microscope it’s dead

Are the thinnest type

they can contract in order to move muscles

change cell shape by forming pseudopods in white blood cells and amoebas cause cytoplasmic streaming in plant cells

All move by contractions of cytoskeleton fibers

Flagella a single sometimes more long tail coming out of a sperm cell in all animals including humans implants also used for locomotion in some bacteria algae and protozoa

Used like a whip For locomotion in eukaryotic cells as such flagella utilize in internal 9+2 arrangement of microtubules to bend it

Flagella work like a propeller and prokaryotic cells

Tiny hair like projections of the cell membrane

hundreds Or thousands per cell

Transport mucus up the Upper respiratory tract to be swallowed so bacteria trapped and mucus die in stomach acid

Transport egg down fallopian tube toward uterus

Also used for locomotion and feeding in certain protozoa like paramecium

Like eukaryotic flagella Cilia uses a 9+2 arrangement of microtubules to bend

Centrioles or cylinders of cytoskeleton fibers

Centrioles act as anchors for spindle fibers which pull a part chromosomes during cell division

Center assume a pair of centrioles at right angles to each other found outside the nucleus

only occurs while the sale is not dividing

during cell division the Centerstone splits into two centrioles

Consistency of a cell membrane phospholipids aren’t attached to each other they float around Freely consistency like olive oil

Are there holes in the membrane (yes and no) Phospholipids can be pushed aside by a small enough molecule creating a temporary hold channel proteins create permanent holes for selected substances

Passive transport of substances across the cell membrane but to watch the phospholipids in the cell membrane Are impermeable - with the help of transport proteins that grab the substance on one side of the cell membrane and release it on the other side the energy for the transport proteins comes from the kinetic energy In the system (no extra energy needed)

Solute is what gets dissolved

To understand osmosis you must first know the definition of a solution A mixture no chemical bonds between two substances can be any number of substances in which the solvent (water) is not affected but it basically breaks down the salute (sugar) into its smallest parts (ions Atoms or molecules) which remain suspended and evenly spaced and indefinitely

Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane in response to a difference in solute concentration on either side of the membrane

The membrane is permeable to water (the solvent) but is impermeable to what is dissolved in the water (the solute)

Water moves in response to a difference in the concentration of solute’s (and therefore of water) on either side of the membrane

Water moves from the side in which it is more concentrated to the side in which it is less concentrated

since the membrane is impermeable to the solute the solute does not move across

The ability of a solution to draw water across a selectively permeable membrane from another solution

Measured as the pressure of the water flowing across the membrane

the greater the difference in the solute concentration on either side of the membrane the higher the osmotic pressure is on that membrane

Two or more solutions with the same solute concentrations

Red blood cells must be isotonic to blood plasma to maintain a healthy shape

Solution a is hypertonic to solution be if solution A has a higher solute concentration then B

If a red blood cell floating in blood plasma or for a plant cell surrounded by some fluid both the cytoplasm of the cell and the surrounding liquid or solutions in the following cases the cell is hypertonic to the surrounding liquid

If a red blood cell is hypertonic to the plasma it will swell and burst because being hypertonic to the plasma the red blood cell has a higher concentration of the solute’s and a correspondingly lower concentration of water which results in water diffuses into the cell from the plasma

Bursting of a hypertonic red blood cell (can kill you)

Bursting of any hypertonic animal cell explode or blow up

If a plant cell is hypertonic to the surrounding liquid the cell will swell but it will not burst the cell will gain water and the cell membrane will push up against Reason: the cell wall which is strong enough to contain the liquid without bursting we say the plant cell has increased it turgor pressure or has become more turgid

Cholesterol this is a slippery molecule and it breaks up log jams of phospholipids helps to spread out

Crooked tails on phospholipidsThis makes phospholipids asymmetrical which prevents them from packing to densely double bonds make this Bend

Channel proteins This is in bedded in the bilayer and has a hole through it with a specific shape only allowing certain substances to pass permanent hall and membrane which allow certain things to pass through

Transport proteins on it’s receiving end if a molecule bangs into it with the proper shape (lock and key model) the Protein closes on the other end Letting the molecules through

Hormone receptors The shape of proteins receiving And must match the hormone shape lock and key once the hormone makes contact the protein releases a small molecule which diffuses into the nucleus turns on a gene and initiate a metabolic reaction

Cell surface markers (antigens) (flag )

cell adhesion

attached to cytoskeleton

Communication with other cells and self identification

cell surface markers

a.k.a. antigens

mostly made of proteins identify cell as to tissue type in as belonging to a particular individual

organelle membranes do not have these

These keep the body from having an immune response against itself (roving antibodies and tissues check out a cells cells surface markers and attack it if the wrong Type)

Receptors and cell membrane Also made of proteins

receive hormones are (chemical messengers) from other cells which tell this cell what to do (such as speed up Metabolism)

Cell membranes give the cell shape and protection

Cell membranes are selectively permeable

Phospholipids are permeable to substances soluble In lipids (example substances without a charge like steroids vitamins A D E K)

Small molecules CO2 O2 and H2O with little or no charge

Phospholipids are impermeable to

large molecules (proteins) & carbohydrates and charged particles (ions)

Protein channels and transporters both are proteins that span the cell membrane both carry substances across the membrane that phospholipids are in permeable to both are highly selective about what they will let

Relies on kinetic energy already in the system

kinetic energy is energy that causes matter to move like body heat (riding a bike down a hill)

BrownianMovement Heat causes particles to randomly shake and collide with each other

diffuse the collisions caused the particles to spread out

Additional energy (besides the kinetic energy in the system) is required to move the particles across the cell membrane

the energy comes directly from ATP (ultimately from glucose or other food sources converted into glucose)

ATP Gives energy to other molecules to get work done

Spreading of particles from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration

as they defuse the particles move down there concentration gradient

diffusion occurs with or without a membrane it will only occur across a membrane that is permeable to the diffusing substance Particles continue to diffuse across a membrane until both sides of the membrane or in equilibrium particle -concentrations are equal on both sides

Solution a is hypotonic to solution be if solution A has a lower solute concentration then B

Note again both the cell and the surrounding liquid are solutions in this case the cell is hypotonic to it surroundings

If a red blood cell is hypo tonic to plasma it will lose water and shrink

Reason: Being hypotonic to the plasma the red blood cell has a lower concentration of solute’s and a correspondingly higher concentration of water

result: water diffuses out of the cell and into the plasma

If a plant so is hypotonic to it surroundings the plant will lose water the cell membrane shrinks in from the cell wall which keeps its shape Called plasmolysis

we say the cell has lost its turgor pressure or has become flaccid (on the tissue level this is equivalent to a leaf wilting)

(Heat energy is not enough) works just like facilitated diffusion (transport proteins carry impermeable substances across the cell membrane) but the substances Cross the membrane against their concentration gradients example From low to high concentration (needs a push) from ATP

requires energy from ATP (40% of a cells ATP goes to active transport)

ATP is energizing proteins by pumping out of cell

Facilitated difference is pass it only requires heat energy active transport move substances move from high to low concentration ATP is energizing proteins by pumping out of cell

Bulk transport across the cell membrane movement of large molecules are particles in either direction across the membrane

Note: because the cell membrane is changing shape this requires extra energy from ATP in there for qualifies as active movement

Engulfment of large molecules or particles by a cell membrane changing shape to surround them

Engulfment of large particles (can be a smaller cell)

pseudopods (false feet) or formed to engulf the object

amoebas feed this way , some white blood cells do it to bacteria and cancer cells

Engulfment of droplets of extracellular fluid containing various large molecules

Call cell drinking No pseudopods formed

Happens in cells of placenta embryo drinks in mothers fluids

Exactly like Pinot cytosis which is non-specific as to what it absorbs except here receptors in “coated pits “ bind with specific molecules dissolved in the solution outside of the cell

Drops of the solution are then engulfed

Opposite of endocytosis substances are brought out of the cell

happens when things like hormones enzymes or mucus are secreted from a cell

Exocytosis releases droplets of liquid on a cellular level the same processes

Random patterns of short rivet like proteins press two membranes tightly together result slows diffusion between cells found where cells of different tissues meet so they don’t mix their contents

Channel proteins line up between two membranes creating holes between cells result speeds up diffusion between cells found between Hartsell’s so ions shoot across and cause cells to contract simultaneously

Gap junction between plant cells: piece 2 cell membranes and 2 cell walls useful in transporting H2O and SAP up and down the plant

Strongest junction of all four kinds

Rod like proteins peace through the cells to be joined

found in areas of great where in tear like between muscle cells