Bio/ Homeostasis, Muscle, Endocrine

Medial surface slit. Renal pelvis composed whole width. Renal artery, vein, and ureter exit through it

Hypopyhseal, kidney, liver

Passes through two capillary beds

Afferent arteriole capillary bed that surrounds loop of henle

Proximal convoluted tubule. Descending, ascending loop of henle, distal convoluted tubule, collecting duct

Detrusor muscle

Activated by parasympathetic

Bladder muscle stretches, signals parasympathetic. Causes internal urethral sphincter (involuntary smooth) to relax. Then person voluntarily controls the external urethral sphincter (skeletal). Abd muscles also squeeze bladder

Filtration, secretion, reabsorption

Filtration, secretion, reabsorption

Tuft of blood vessels, Bowman capsule, sterling forces

Small molecules, large proteins and cells, the pores filter these big things out.

You can tell health issues if cells or protein are found in blood

Some molecules are secreted by kidney directly into nephron for excretion such as urea or larger molecules or excess ions

Glucose, vitamins, amino acids, and some hormones are reabsorbed into circulation by kidney. Hormones also control amount of reabsorbed water

Keep good stuff remove unwanted stuff, concentrate urine to conserve water

H+

Urea

NH3

K+

Particles

Fluid control

Particles

Fluid control

Secretions: HUNK

Reabsorbed: Na+ almost 70 percent, Cl, H20, amino acids glucose and vitamins

Only permeable to water. Osmolarity increases deeper into medulla so more water reabsorption as descends. Osmo can be regulated by kidney to control reabsorption

Vasa recta and nephron flow opposite so nephron always against hypertonic blood for reabsorption (can’t reach equilibrium)

Only permeable to salt. Salt flows out more as ascending to cortex due to lower sodium concentration

Only permeable to salt. Salt flows out more as ascending to cortex due to lower sodium concentration

Ascending from inner to outer renal medulla tubule gets thicker not tube itself but the cells. They contain more mitochondria to fuel active transport of salt. Thus there is actual dilution of filtrate and decreases volume

Responds to aldosterone to increase sodium and water reabsorption

Large control of final urine concentration. Responds to ADH and aldosterone. After here there is no reabsorption

Blood pressure, osmoregulation, acid base balance (slower than respiratory but still effective)

Stratum basale (stem cells and makes keratinocytes)

Stratum spinosum: connects the cells and has langerhans cells

Stratum granulosum: keratinocytes die and lose their nuclei

Stratum lucidum (palmar plantar only) nearly transparent

Stratum corneum dozens of keratinocyte flattened layers

Resistant to damage, protect against injury water and pathogens. Calluses are excess keratin. Nails and hair also keratin

Melanocytes: stratum basale. Makes melanin which protects from UV. Pigment passed to keratinocytes. Color based on activity not amount of these cells

Langerhans cells: stratum spinosum. Skin macrophages

Melanocytes: stratum basale. Makes melanin which protects from UV. Pigment passed to keratinocytes. Color based on activity not amount of these cells

Langerhans cells: stratum spinosum. Skin macrophages

Papillary later (loose connective tissue)

Reticular layer (more dense)

Sweat glands blood vessels and hair originate in dermis

Melanocytes: stratum basale. Makes melanin which protects from UV. Pigment passed to keratinocytes. Color based on activity not amount of these cells

Langerhans cells: stratum spinosum. Skin macrophages

Papillary later (loose connective tissue)

Reticular layer (more dense)

Sweat glands blood vessels and hair originate in dermis

Sensation

Occur as dermal epidermal junction. Connect to sensory neurons. Deep pressure and texture sensation

Occur as dermal epidermal junction. Connect to sensory neurons. Deep pressure and texture sensation

Nerve endings

Occur as dermal epidermal junction. Connect to sensory neurons. Deep pressure and texture sensation

Nerve endings

Light touch

Occur as dermal epidermal junction. Connect to sensory neurons. Deep pressure and texture sensation

Nerve endings

Light touch

Stretch

Deep pressure and vibration

Layer of connective tissue. Fat and fibrous tissue. Connects to rest of body

Sympathetic and acetylcholine

Arrector pili muscles stand up hairs to trap a layer of heat

Has less efficient ETC for more heat release

Fluid, fluid

Striated multinucleated somatic

Striated multinucleated somatic

Red (slow twitch) fiber: high myoglobin and mitochondria. Slow contraction sustained activities

White (fast twitch) lighter color cuz less myoglobin. Better for rapid fast fatigue function

uninucleate, no striations, constant low level contraction called tonus

Mostly uni but some multinucleate, involuntary like smooth but striated like skeletal. Connected by intercalated discs with lots of gap junctions for rapid depolarization (gap junctions connect cytoplasms remember)

Myogenic activity. Can operate with out nervous system activity

Myogenic activity. Can operate with out nervous system activity

Calcium

Contractile unit of skeletal muscle made of thick and thin filaments

Mostly myosin

Actin, and troponin and tropomyosin (regulate actin myosin interaction

Protein in muscle acts like a spring that anchors actin myosin together to prevent excess stretching

Z-lines: vertical boundaries

M-line: runs down center through myosin filaments

I band: region of only thin filament

H zone: only thick

A band: entire section of thick filament and overlaps of thin

A band

A band

Sarcomere attach end to end forming myofibrils. Covered by sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) which has high Ca (sarcoplasm is modified cytoplasm out of SR). Membrane of myocyte with all this stuff crammed in is sarcolemma (can make propagate action potentials and distribute with transverse tubules or t tubules) transverse to myofibrils. Each myocyte has many myofibrils and is also known as muscle fibers with nucleus on periphery

Starts at neuromuscular junction (muscle synapse). AP goes to nerve terminal (synaptic bouton). Acetylcholine through synapse. End terminal is motor end plate

One nerve terminal and it’s collection of myocytes

AP goes sarcolemma down t tubules to SR which releases Ca. Ca binds to troponin changing conformation of tropomyosin( they are bound). This changes myosin binding sites on actin to expose to myosin

ADP pi release from being attached to myosin allows myosin to bind and pull exposed sites on actin. This shortens sacromere. Release of the hydrolyzed adp pi is what gives the energy. After this a new atp hydrolyzes and attached to myosin which recocks it

ADP pi release from being attached to myosin allows myosin to bind and pull exposed sites on actin. This shortens sacromere. Release of the hydrolyzed adp pi is what gives the energy. After this a new atp hydrolyzes and attached to myosin which recocks it

Thin filament slides along thick filament shortening sarcomere. H zone and I band shorten and A band unchanged

ADP pi release from being attached to myosin allows myosin to bind and pull exposed sites on actin. This shortens sacromere. Release of the hydrolyzed adp pi is what gives the energy. After this a new atp hydrolyzes and attached to myosin which recocks it

Thin filament slides along thick filament shortening sarcomere. H zone and I band shorten and A band unchanged

Degrades acetylcholine to end AP and calcium release

All or nothing

Number of fibers recruited

Response of a single muscle fiber to brief stimulus above theeshold

Time between threshold and onset of contraction. AP spread across muscle

Combined contractions from prolonged stimulation. Too frequent such that muscle can’t relax is tetanus

Difference between needed 02 during exercise and amount present

Difference between needed 02 during exercise and amount present. Also amount of oxygen needed to convert the lactic acid to pyruvate

Compact bone (strong part)

Spongy or cancellous bone (has points called trabeculae, cavities between have marrow)

Difference between needed 02 during exercise and amount present. Also amount of oxygen needed to convert the lactic acid to pyruvate

Compact bone (strong part)

Spongy or cancellous bone (has points called trabeculae, cavities between have marrow)

Red marrow: erythropoesis

Yellow: fatty and relatively inactive

Shaft called diaphyses swell at end to form metaphyses then terminate at epiphyses

Site of longitudinal growth. Plates close during puberty

Strength of compact bone. Has collagen glycoproteins and minerals that harden to form hydroxyapatite crystals.

Strength of compact bone. Has collagen glycoproteins and minerals that harden to form hydroxyapatite crystals.

Main way of bone formation via hardening of cartilage

Undifferentiated embryonic connective tissue mesenchymal tissue transformed into and replace by bone occurs in skull

Immovable joints: joined by sutures, skull example

Movable joints: you know

Strengthened by ligaments

Has a synovial capsule that encloses joint (or articular) cavity . Soft tissue layer called synovium secretes synovial fluid which lubes movement.

Coats articular bone surface to reduce impact to lubed cartilage and not bone

Large attachment is origin small usually distal is insertion

Antagonistic pairs

Flexes

Relaxes

Synergistic

Adductor muscle moves toward midline

Abductor away

Structural unit of bone matrix. Is a circle of matrix called lamellae

Units of bone matrix. Each has circles called lamellae surrounding a microscopic channel.

Vertical are Haversian canals

Horizontal are volkmann’s canals

Contain blood vessels, lymph, and nerves

Spaces between lamellar rings with osteocytes and are connected by canaliculi, small channels that connect osteocytes and the canals

Osteoblasts: build bone

Osteoclasts: polynucleotide macrophages of bone that resorb (breakdown for reabsorption)

Thus bone constantly turned over

Stress

Peptide hormone and vitamin that promoted bone resorption (resorption also helps better growth)

Peptide hormone that lowers blood calcium by promoting bone formation

Softer and more flex than bone, matrix called chondrin secreted by chondrocytes. Fetal skeleton mostly cartilage. Avascular

Made up of amino acids derived from larger polypeptides cleaved. Charged so is a first messenger that acts on membrane protein to signal second messenger. Water soluble so travel in bloodstream freely

Key! Rapid and short lived and quicker to turn off like insulin

Effect brought by second messenger. Can amplify response at each step. Example: G protein coupled: G protein activates adenylate cyclase which increases the second messenger cAMP. Other second messengers are IP3 and ca+

Effect brought by second messenger. Can amplify response at each step. Example: G protein coupled: G protein activates adenylate cyclase which increases the second messenger cAMP. Other second messengers are IP3 and ca+

Derived from cholesterol. Mainly in gonads and adrenal cortex. Usually cross membrane to get to intracellular or intranuclear receptors. Can form complex with receptor such as dimer and bind to DNA for activation or suppression. Thus steroids are longer acting and slower. Need carriers in bloodstream

Effect brought by second messenger. Can amplify response at each step. Example: G protein coupled: G protein activates adenylate cyclase which increases the second messenger cAMP. Other second messengers are IP3 and ca+

Derived from cholesterol. Mainly in gonads and adrenal cortex. Usually cross membrane to get to intracellular or intranuclear receptors. Can form complex with receptor such as dimer and bind to DNA for activation or suppression. Thus steroids are longer acting and slower. Need carriers in bloodstream

Less common. Less predictable

Fast acting: epi and norepinephrine the catecholamines bind to G protein and are FAST!

Slow acting: thyroxine and triiodothyronine, binds intracellularly, slow and regulate metabolic rate

Direct: acts on a tissue directly (insulin)

Tropic: needs intermediary (GnRH with LH and FSH) usually in brain

in or ine

one ol oid

Input from body

Hypophyseal portal system

GnRH > LH and FSH

Growth hormone releasing hormone(GHRH)> growth hormone (GH)

Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH)> thyroid stimulating hormone(TSH)

Corticotropic releasing factor(CRF)>Adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone (ACTH)

Dopamine, inhibits, prolactin, milk production

Axes or axis

Stimulated by nerves from hypothalamus not blood.

Releases ADH and oxytocin (has positive feedback and breast feeding can stim too)

Key: these two hormones are actually made in hypothalamus and sent to posterior pituitary

FLAT PEG

FSH

LH

Adrenocorticotropic releasing hormone (ACTH)

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

Prolactin

Endorphins

Growth hormone GH

Note: FLAT are tropic and peg are direct

Decrease pain perception

Decrease pain perception

Gigantism or dwarfism

In adults after long bone plates have set only short bones grow called acromegaly

TSH stims. Thyroid sets basal metabolic rate and calcium homeostasis.

First by triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) which are made by iodination of tyrosine. Increases metabolism released by follicular cells

Calcium controlled by calcitonin which decreases blood calcium 3 ways: excretion increase, decrease gut absorption, increased bone storage. Released by c-cells

Development delay by hypothyroid

Neurotransmitter release, bone, muscle contraction, clotting, exocytosis

Four pea sized things posterior to thyroid

Does opposite of calcitonin to increase blood calcium

Activates vitamin D which helps absorb ca and phosphate in gut (phosphate don’t really increase)

From adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids: steroid hormones for glucose and metabolism (cortisol and cortisone) regulated by ACTH

Mineral corticoids: salt and water homeostasis (aldosterone)

Cortical sex hormones: androgens and estrogens. Androgen in men mostly from balls. Females very sensitive to adrenal cortex problems and got manly stuff

Remember three s

Salt sugar sex

From adrenal cortex

Glucocorticoids: steroid hormones for glucose and metabolism (cortisol and cortisone) regulated by ACTH

Mineral corticoids: salt and water homeostasis (aldosterone)

Cortical sex hormones: androgens and estrogens. Androgen in men mostly from balls. Females very sensitive to adrenal cortex problems and got manly stuff

Remember three s

Salt sugar sex

Renin angiotensin aldosterone system

Increases bp. Juxtomedullar cell’s in kidney secrete renin, it cleaves angiotensin to active angiotensin 1. Converted to II by ace. 2 stims aldosterone release from adrenal cortex. This stims increased salt reabsorption in distal convoluted tubule to increase bp

Epi and norepinephrine. Amino acid derived catecholamines

Islets of langerhans

Alpha: glucagon

Beta: insulin

Delta: somatostatin(inhibits both the others and is also secreted by hypothalamus)

Islets of langerhans

Alpha: glucagon

Beta: insulin

Delta: somatostatin(inhibits both the others and is also secreted by hypothalamus)

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) atria stretches from high bp stims secretion to exrete sodium and lower bp. Think opposite of aldosterone. Isn’t super effective

Islets of langerhans

Alpha: glucagon

Beta: insulin

Delta: somatostatin(inhibits both the others and is also secreted by hypothalamus)

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) atria stretches from high bp stims secretion to exrete sodium and lower bp. Think opposite of aldosterone. Isn’t super effective

Behind sternum

Thymosin

Helps for tcell development