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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the 5 biological functions of carbohydrates?
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1. they are metabolic precursors of amino acids, nucleotides and lipids
2. provide energy to cells, through the breakdown of carbohydrates 3. carbohydrates are components of the cell wall and extracellular matrix 4. components of glycolipids(common component of biological membranes) 5. components of glycoproteins(molecular recognition such as immunoglobin) |
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What are the three major classes of carbohydrates?
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1. monosaccharides
2. oligosaccharides 3. polysacchrides |
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What are two types of monosaccharides?
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1. aldose - contain an aldehyde functional group
2. ketose - contain a ketone functional group |
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What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for sucrose?
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unit and linkage: Glucose-alpha-1,2-fructose
non-reducing and enzyme: sucrase |
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What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for lactose?
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unit and linkage: Glacatose-beta-1,4-glucose
reducing enzyme: lactase |
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What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for maltose?
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unit and linkage: Glucose-alpha-1,4-glucose
reducing enzyme:maltase |
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What are the unit and linkage, reducing or non reducing, and the enzyme for cellobiose?
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unit and linkage: Glucose-beta-1,4-glucose
reducing enzyme: unknown |
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a covalent bond that holds a carbohydrate to another group that can or cannot be another sugar
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glycosidic bond
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Starch?
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plants
unit and linkage: alpha-1,4-glucose untis alpha-1,6-glucose units function: energy storage in plants |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Glycogen?
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human/animals
unit and linkage: alpha-1,4-glucose units alpha-1,6-glucose units function: energy storage in humans in the liver |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Dextran?
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bacteria/yeast
unit linkage: alpha-1,6-glucose units alpha-1,2 or alpha-1,3 or alpha-1,4 glucose units function: energy storage |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Cellulose?
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plants
unit linkage: beta-1,4-glucose units function: structure in plant cell wall |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Chitin?
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insects, spiders, crustacean
unit linkaged: Beta-1,4-N-acetyl-glucosamine units function: exoskeleton, structure, and strength |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Peptidoglycan?
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bacterium
unit linkage: [NAG-MAN]n function: bacterial cell wall, structure and strength |
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What are the organisms, monosaccharide unit and linkage, and biological function of Glycosaminoglycan?
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Human/animal
unit linkage:dissacharide units function: extracellular matrix, strucutre and strength |
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consist of carbohydrates linked to other types of bimolecular, could be linked to proteins, amino acids, lipids, and peptides
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glycoconjugates
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What are the three major types of glycoconjugates?
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1. glycoproteins
2. peptidoglycans 3. glycolipids |
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proteins with covalently attached sugar units, either bonded via OH group of Ser or Threonine or through the amide N2 of asparagine
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glycoproteins
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What are major types of glycoproteins? (know amino acids participating in the covalent bond)
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1. o-linked : carbohydrate linked to proteins htrough (ser and thr) has -OH group, and -O will link to the sugar
2. N-linked: carbohydrate linked to sproteins through (asn) nitrogen will link to sugar 3. proteoglycan: O or N linked |
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Understand the ABO blood group:
O: A: B: AB: |
O: o antigen = H antigen
A: a antigen + o antigen B: b antigen + o antigen AB: a antigen + b antigen + o antigen H, A, B antigens are glycoproteins. O can donate to A, but A cannot donate to O. A can donate to AB but AB cannot donate A or B |
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proteins that have carbohydrate bonding sites
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lectins
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What is an example of lectins?
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H5N2 (influenza) ; hemaglutin
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Glycolysis occurs in the _____
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cytosol/cytoplasm
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glycolysis is a ___________ found in nearly all organisms
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energy conversion process
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Glycolysis produces ____________
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3 and 6 carbon metabolites
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Glycolysis does not require _______
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oxygen
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Arthur Harden and Otto Meyernot discover the glycolytic pathway in ____
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1929
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What are the fates of pyruvate?
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The fate of pyruvate happens in 4 directions:
1. pyruvate dehydrogenase 2. pyruvate carboxylase 3. pyruvate decarboxylase + alcohol dehydrogenase 4. lactate dehydrogenase |
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___ will regulate the glycolytic pathway. There are 3 steps that are one directional reaction, which are regulated.
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enzymes
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Hormones in the glycolitic pathway: insulin signaling pathway, activate glucose transporters under ______ blood glucose conditions which transport glucose from blood into cells; ____ is released from pancrease into blood when blood glucose levels are low
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high
Glucagon |
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Allosteric regulation of the glycolitic pathways: _______ , ______, and _______.
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hexokinase, phosphofructokinase and pyruvate kinase
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pasteur effect of the glycolitic pathway: the slowing of ______ glycolysis in the presence of oxygen in yeast and muscle
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glycolysis
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How does mannose enter into the glycolytic pathway?
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fructose 6-phosphate
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how does galactose enter the glycolitic pathway?
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glucose 6-phosphate
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how does fructose enter the glycolitic pathway?
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glyceraldehyde 3- phosphate to Phosphoenoryuvate
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____ occurs mainly in the liver and kidneys
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gluconeogenesis
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Gluconeogenesis consists of ___reactions: the 1st reaction will occur in the ______. The rest of the reactions will occur in the _______
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11
mitochondria cytosol/cytoplasm |
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Explain the process of gluconeogenesis
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1. starvation for 4-16 hours: blood glucose will decrease and glycogen will break down and become glucose and the blood glucose will increase
2. starvation for 16-24 hours: the liver glycogen will be used up so the blood glucose levels will decrease so through non-carbohydrates will convert to glucose ; example amino acid (alanine) converted to sugar |
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What are the precursors for gluconeogenesis?
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amino acids, part of lipid, and lactate
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______ is related to two different cells, mucsle and liver
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cori cycle
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in the cori cycle _____ from the peripheral tissues goes to the liver and is made into glucose ; the glucose can then go back to the peripheral tissues
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lactate
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The liver uses ____ for energy?
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lipids
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What is the cori cycle?
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it is related to muscle and liver cells; lactate from peripheral tissues goes to the liver and is made into glucose the glucose can go back to the peripheral tissues ; the liver uses lipids for energy
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What is the pentose phosphate pathway (PPP)?
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the majority of human tissues/organs have PPP but not the human brain and muscle ; ppp occurs in the cytosol/cytoplasm ; there are three major products: NADPH (can provide energy), Ribose (5-phosphate group)-builds nucleotides which buuilds RNA and DNA; and ATP
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The majority of human tissues and organ have the PPP but not _______ and _____
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human brain and muscle
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the pentose phosphate pathway occurs in the _____
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cytosol /cytoplasm
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What are the 3 major products of the pentose phosphate pathway?
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1. NADPH (can provide energy)
2. ribose (5-phosphate group) -builds nucleotides 3. ATP |
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Understand the 3 directions of the regulation of the pentose phosphate pathway.
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Direction 1: products are NADPH and Ribose 5-phosphate
Direction 2: Products are maximal NADPH Direction 3: products are NADPH + ATP |
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What are the two imporant enzymes of glycogen synthesis and degradation?
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glycogen phosphylase and glycogen synthase
review diagram |
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the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle (tricarboyxlic acid cycle) is also called the Krebs cycle; citric acid = citrate (___ carbons)
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6 carbons
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______ is the central metabolic hub of the cell
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citric acid cycle
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_____ is the central energy hub of the cell
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citric acid cycle
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about _____ of the energy is from glycolysis, TCA cycle, electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation
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90%
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The cirtic acid cycle occurs in the _____
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mitochondria
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How is pyruvate converted to acetyl-CoA and how is it regulated?
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pyruvate is converted to Acetyl-CoA through pyruvate dehydrogenase, producing a relase of CO2 and NADH
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What is the input summary of the citric acid cycle?
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2 CO2
1 GTP 3 NADH 1 FADH2 |
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What is the output summary of the citric acid cycle?
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1 acetly CoA
1 GDP + Pi 3 NAD + 1 FAD |
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expalin and show Why is the citric acid cycle the central metabolic hub of a cell?
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refer to diagram
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The citric acid cycle is the central metabolic hub of a cell. It occurs in bacteria, fungi, plants, yeast, and animals as well as humans
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true
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How many ATP and NADH are generated during the catabolism of one molecule of glucose?
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1 NADH = 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2= 1.5 ATP 32 ATP per glucose |
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explain why one NADH can be converted to 2.5 ATPs and one FADH can be converted to 1.5 ATPs
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2 e- = 10 H +
4 H+ = 1 ATP 10+H/ 4 H+= 2.5 --> NADH 6H+/4H+= 1.5 --> FADH2 |
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bacteria, fungi, and plants have the _________; during seed germination , energy is required. Lipid will convert to fatty acid then converted to acetyl-coA then will enter into the _______
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glycooxylate pathway
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What two enzymes does the glyoxylate pathway require?
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isocitrate lyase and malate synthase
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the glyoxylate pathway occurs in ______ in some plants and it occurs in the _____ of bacteria and fungi
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glyoxysome
cytosol |
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What are the major functions of the citric acid cycle?
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the cycle is the central metabolic hub of the cell. It is the final common pathway for the oxidation of fuel molecules: amino acids, fatty acids & carbohydrates. The cycle is the central energy conversion hub of the cell. It removes electrons from acetyl CoA and uses them to form NADH and FADH2 (high energy electron carriers)
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What is the overview of electron transport and ATP synthesis?
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1 NADH= 2.5 ATPs ( glycolysis and TCA cycle: 10 NADH/glucose)
1 FADH2= 1.5 ATPs (2 FADH2/glucose ) Fate of NADH and FADH2 is to genreate ATP Electron transport and ATP synthesis occurs in the mitochondira Electron transport --> H+ gradient --> ATP synthesis The uiltimate aceptor of e- is oxygen |
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Understand the electron transport chains in complex I, II, III, and IV and be able to draw
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it requires complexes (proteins(enzymes)) and electron carriers which except and donate electrons they move from one complex to another and back
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Understand why one NADH could convert to 2.5 ATP and one FADH2 or QH2 could convert to 1.5 ATP
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1 NADH = 2 e- = 10 H+ x 1 ATP/4H = 2.5 ATP
1 FADH2= 2 e- = 6 H+ x 1 ATP/4H= 1.5 ATP |
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explain the mechanism how ATP synthase convert ADP and Pi to ATP using the proton gradient
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ADP, Pi bind to an open site; inward passage of protons, conformation change, ATP synthesis from ADP and Pi; ATP released from open site, ADP and Pi form ATP in the tight site.
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Complex V is also called ATP synthase = ______
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f0/fi ATP synthase
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The ATP synthase complex requires about _____ proteins
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22-26
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How is ATP exported to the cytoplasm from mitochondrion?
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transport of ATP, ADP and Pi across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The adenine nucleotide translocase carries out unidirectional exchange of ATP for ADP (antiport) .
The symport of Pi and H+ is electroneutral |
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How is NADH generated in cytoplasm imported into mitochondrion?
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through the transport proteins ; aspartate --> oxaloacitate
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What are reactive oxygen species (ROS)?
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are toxic to the cell, so the cells needs to be able to remove it
Radicals (free radicals) are atoms, molecules, or ions with unpaired electrons or an open shell configuration. Free radicals may have positive negative or zero chanrge. With some exceptions, these unpaired electrons cause radicals to be highly chemically reactive |
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What are the 4 possible ROS?
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1. superoxide radical (o2.-): O2 + e --> O2.-
2. hydrogen peroxide (H2O2): 2H+ + 2O2.- --> O2 + H2O2 3. Hydroxyl radical (.OH) : Fe2+ + H2O2 --> Fe 3+ + .OH + OH- 4. Singlet O2 (1 O2: one e- jumps to superior orbital following absorption of energy): 2H+ + 2 O2.- --> O2 + H2O2 |
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What are common antioxidants used to remove ROS?
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superoxidase dismutase
catalase glutathione peroxidase Vitamin E Vitamin C Beta-carotene |
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What are the general functions of lipids?
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lipids can either be hydrophobic or amphipathic ; and they have a low solubility in water
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What are the 6 biological functions of lipids?
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1. energy storage
2. biological membrane components 3. good thermal insulators 4. surface protection function 5. steroid hormones 6. cellular recognitions |
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What are the major classes of lipids (4)?
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1. fatty acids
2. steriods 3. lipid vitamins 4. terpenes |
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What are the major classes of fatty acids (5)?
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1. eicosaniods
2. glycerophospholipids 3. triacylglycerols 4. waxes 5. sphingolipids |
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What is the meaning of essential fatty acids?
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means that you have to acquire it form the diet
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What are the biological functions of triacylglycerols?
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used for energy storage in humans, and it protects the body temperature
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What is the biological function of glycerophospholipids?
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it is a cell membrane component; the head is polar and the tail is non polar
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What are the 6 major types of phospholipases?
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1. sphingosine
2. ceramides 3. sphingomyelins 4. cerebrosides 5. galactosylcerebrosides 6. gangliosides |
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_____ an 18 carbon amino alcohol
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sphingosine
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_____ amide linkages of fatty acids to the nitrogen of sphingosine
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ceramides
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____ phosphocholine attached to C-1 of ceramide
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sphingomyelins
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______ glycosphingolipids with one monosaccharide residue attached via glycosidic linkage to C-1 of ceramide
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Cerebrosides
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_______ a single b-D-galactose as a polar head group
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Galactosylcerebrosides
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____ contain oligosaccharide chains with Nacetyl-neuraminic acid (NeuNAc) attached to a ceramide
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gangliosides
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What is the biological function of sphingolipids?
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nerve cell, membrane component
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What are the biological funcitons of cholesterol?
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cell membrane component
precursors of steriod hormone component of lipoproteins |
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What are the major components of cell membranes?
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Lipid bilayer (phospholipids)
Membrane proteins 1. peripheral membrane protein 2. integral membrane protein 3. lipid-anchored protein |
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What are the biological functions of cell membrane?
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to separate the cell from the environment: help acumulate nutrients inside the cell, barrier to toxic molecules, carry out energy transduction, modulate signal transduction, facilitate cell mvoement, assist in reproduction
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What are spontaneously formed lipid structures in water?
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monolayers, micelles, bilayers, vesicles
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What are the major types of membrane proteins?
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transport functions and receptors
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What are major types of membrane transportation?
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Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and active transport
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simplest transport process, molecules move across membrane without the help of any specific transport system, molecules mvoe across membrane and set up equilibrium of concentration ; it is driven by entropy considerations
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passive diffusion
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requires specific memrbane transport proteins ; since the number of such memrbane transport proteins is limited they can be saturated if the concentration of molecules to be trasported is high; it has the characteristic property of saturation at high substrate concentration, does not rely upon such transport proteins and does not display such saturation at high substrate concentrations ; solute flows only in the favored direction
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facilitated diffusion
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some trasport must occur such that solutes flow against thermodynamic potention; energy input drives transport; energy source and trsport machery are coupled ; energy source may be ATP, light or a concentration gradient ; in the case of ion gradient , a separate active transport process must be in place to produce such a gradient in the first place
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active transport
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What are the energy sources for active transport?
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may be ATP, light or a concentration gradient
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What are the functions of lipoproteins?
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main function is transport; lipid will bind to the protein and will be water soluble, able to transport lipids in the blood vessel from cell to cell
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What are the types of lipoproteins?
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chylomicrons, very low density lipoproteins, low density lipoproteins, high density lipoproteins
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