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178 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
levels of organization of biology (5, organism to biosphere)
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organism < population < community < ecosystem < biosphere
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the three universal characteristics of living organisms
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1) energy transformation (life does reactions)
light, organic, inorganic compounds 2) reproduction (life propogates) asexual (no genetic diff) and sexual (gametes) 3) shows homeostasis (life adapts to environments, etc) |
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evolution (what is it, how can we track it)
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- genetic and resulting phenotypic change in populations of orgs from one generation to the next
- track it through fossil record, morphological comparisons, development, molecular analysis, and behaviour |
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why is choking common (evolutionary perspective) in humans?
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LUNGFISH
- developed resp tracts from their mouths, cause it was a convenient opening to take in |
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origin of life on earth (what are the 2 theories)
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- extraterrestrial
- chemical evolution on earth *even extraterrestetrial life had to be built by chem evolution |
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miller & urey experiment
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- tried to mimic early earth's atmosphere
- organic molecules formed. how? -light/EM energy source (lightning) |
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there were ________ origins of life
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1, cuase everything is so similar
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over time, O2 has gone ______ (up/down) in earth
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up. there was no O2 originally, it was waste product when CO2 was used to make organic molecules
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who were the first photosynthetic organisms?
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cyanobacteria
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precambrian era (2 parts)
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-life in oceans only
- mainly unicellular/prokaryotic late precambrian - eukaryortes evolved. some soft bodied animals |
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stromatolites
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layered cyanobacterial concretions
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ediacaran animals
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soft bodied animals bo
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cambrian explosion
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beggining of paleozoic era. rapid diversification of life
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what is and why did ordivician end?
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- first part of paleozoic era, radiation of marine life
- ended cause of sea level and ocean temp drop. |
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silurian
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- mid paleozoic
- colonization of land (by plants & arthropods) - swimming, jawless fishes |
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devonian
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- age of fishes
- first seed plants on land - spiders and insects |
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carboniferous
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- age of amphibians/coal
- land was dominated by swamp forses (ferns and horse trails) - flight (in insects) - amniotic egg evolves (shelled egg) |
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how did organisms begin to reproduce on land?
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the amniotic egg
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permian
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-reptiles diversify
- largest mass extinction in history at the end (cause pangea formed) -end of paleozoic |
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mesozoic (3 types)
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- triassic (first dinsaurs, mammals)
- jurassic (large dinosaurs, flying reptiles, flowering plants) - cretaceous (mammals radiate) |
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cretaceous mass extinction
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- caused by meteorite
- all large animals died |
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how many mass extincts in earth? what are they linked with?
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drops in sea level,
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cenozoic
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- mammals and birds take off
-teritiary era - quartinary era (humans) |
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plants living in water (energy, reprod, support, growth)
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- ENERGY: stay hydrated,
- REPROD: large number of gametes, released into water - SUPPORT: water provides support for physical structure - SIZE: photosynthesis and size is limited |
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plants living on land (energy, reprod, support, growth)
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- ENERGY: need organs for absorbing water and minerals (roots)
- water conservation through stomata - water transported through xylem and phloem REPROD: gametes are protected, and seed habit (resists dehydration) SUPPORT: cell wall thickening SIZE: larger cause of diploid genome |
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order of adaptations for plants to flourish on land (9)
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1) protected embryos
2) stomata 3) green sporophyte 4) basic leaves 5) vascular elements (distribution) 6) complex leaves 7) seeds 8) naked seeded plants 9) flowering plants |
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gametophyte vs. sporophyte
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gametophytes are haploid
vs. sporophytes are diploid |
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what is alternation of generations?
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when the organism goes through both gametophyte and sporophyte forms
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chara
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- cells found in green algae, up to 5cm long
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antherida vs. archegonia
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produce sperm vs. produce eggs
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what are green algae?
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- anscestors of plants
- have photosynth with chloro a and b, - cellulose cell walls - haploid dominant |
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isogamy vs. heterogamy
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both gametes look similar
Ex: chlamydomanas heterogamy - gametes are different (egg and sperm) |
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matrotrophic
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embryo is supplied by nutrition from the mother
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where did stomata first appear?
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in mosses
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homospory vs. heterospory
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homospory
- produce a single type of gametophyte with both male and female organs heterospory -first appeared in vascular plants - megaspore (female) and microspore (male) |
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microphylls (what, example)
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simple leaves or leaf like structure , one vascular projection
ex: club moss |
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megaphylls
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large leaves with many vascular veins
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xylum & pholem
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transport tissues.
xylum: water, minerals phoelm: organic compounds |
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gymnosperm vs. angiosperm
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gymnosperm
"naked seed" plants -sperm NOT motile - some of the tallest trees - conifers angiosperm - flowers (mature sporophytes) - xylem vessels - sperms are not motile |
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what are tracheids, vessels, seive tubes and companion cells?
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higher plant vasculature
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how alternation of generations has evolved
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1) gametophyte large, nourishes small sporophyte (moss)
2) sporophyte much larger, gametophyte small, live independently (ferns) 3) sporophyte is predominant and nourishes hidden gametophyte (flowering plants) |
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dicot vs. monocot
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single cotylodon vs. two cotyledons
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tap root vs. fibrous root
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tap root
- in eudicots, strong root system. found in trees fibrous root - in monocots, single and weak root system. large surface area - ex: corn, barley |
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petiole vs. sheath
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structres at the base of a leaf
- petioles are in eudicots - monocots only have sheaths |
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phytomere
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is the modular structure of a stem.
- includes: an internode - leaf at the upper end of internode - axillary bud (embyonic) in the axil of the leaf |
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reticulate vs. parallel
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leaf venation.
- monocots have a parallel venation - eudicots have a reticulate venation |
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cotyldons
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- come up two of them in dicot plants.
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primary growth vs. 2ndary root
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lengthenin vs. thickening of plant
- not much 2ndary growth in monocot plants because of a lack of cambian |
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meristem, what is it
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the part of the place that is a permenant embryonic region
- growth happens from here |
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apical meristem
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shoot apical meristems and root apical meristem
- increases height |
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lateral meristem
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ex: cambium
- increases diameter of plant - indeterminate/permanent |
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temporary meristems
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- produce organs with finite size
- ones that have leaf/flower parts |
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terminal bud
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- top of plant, contains a shoot apical meristem
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leaflets
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- DONT have axillary embryonic regions (as opposed to leaves)
- are part of a compound leaf |
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stipules, tendrils, spines
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- the part that attaches the compound leaves to the stem.
- tendrils help a plant climb as soon as it touches a new surface it grows around it |
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phyllotaxy
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patterns of leaf arrangement.
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vascular bundes in stems of monocots vs. eudicots
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randomly arranges in monocots.
- arranged into a circle in periphery in eudicots |
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cork cambium
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another type of secondary growth. it is water repellent. protects against pathgens
- can sometimes split open (a lenticel) to allow oxygen in |
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vascular bundes in roots of monocots vs. eudicots
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- monocots have a regular arrangement
-eudicots have irregular arrangement |
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why are leafs flat?
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to maximize photosynthesis
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palisade mesophyll cell
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carry out photosynthesis
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root cap
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- covers the root apical meristem. is constantly being eroded away
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root branches vs. stem branches
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from deep layers of the centre root vs. from superficial layers of the center stem
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quiescent centre
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-
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what are modifications of stems?
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- can do photosynthesis (cacti)
- potatoes are stems (each eye can make a new plant) |
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what are modifications of leafs?
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- into pitchers, for carnivorous plants
_ completely upright in monocots |
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trimerous vs. pentamerous
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3 sepals/petals vs. 5 sepals/petals
monocot vs. dicot |
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parts of stamen
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filament, anther
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parts of carpel
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ovary, style (surrounds it), stigma (entry to ovary at top)
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all flower parts are modified _______
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leaves. ie. the seed chambers in fruits (carpels) are folded leaves.
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diffusion
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- movement of molcules due to their own internal thermal/kinetic energy
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osmosis
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diffusion across a selectively permeable membrane
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bluk flow vs. osmosis
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driven by pressure difference vs. driven by concentration
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apoplastic vs. symplastic pathways
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apoplastic
- never enters cells, only travels through cell walls symplastic - water goes through the cell |
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casparian strips
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- the "border point" for water, needs to enter celsl at this point caus eit is entering endodermis (interior)
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transpiration
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- plant losing water through the stomata
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tension
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pulls water from the veins into the leaves
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plants throw ___% of water back into the atmosphere
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99
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plants are ______ producers
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primary
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how is hydrogen put onto carbon?
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water is split, H is used for gradient, energized H are added to NADP+
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source tissue vs. sink tissue
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leaves (collecting organs) vs. roots (growing organs)
- leaves send sugar to phloem to roots - roots send water to xylem to leaves |
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what is an essential element?
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- needs to play a direct role in the life-cycle of the plant
- cant be replaced by another element - its lack/absence creates a specific deficient symptom |
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essential minerals (macro vs. micro)
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Macro: CaKMgNPSSi
Micro: Boron, chlorine, and all transition metals |
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root hairs
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- increase absorbtive area of roots
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clay particles are ____ charged
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- negatively, attract cations on surface.
- roots exchance H from carbonic acid of from plant itself to get the cations |
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leaching
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when soil is over irrigated, it pushes anions too deep for the roots
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root nodules
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- batceria that "fix" nitrogen are in these nodules
- they live symbiotically withj plants - root nodules actually attract them they releasing chemicals, then surround them. they start growing inside the plant |
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ectotrophic mycorrihizal fungus vs. vesicular arbuscular mychorrhizal fungus
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- symbiootic fungus with plant, outside of plant vs. inside plant
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why are some plants carnivorous?
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- in low soil-nitrogen environments, they need to get it from animals
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cuscuta
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a parasitic plant that steals nutrients from other plants
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growth
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irreversible QUANTITATIVE increase
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development
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QUALITATIVE changes in body structure or function. ie organogenesis, morphogenesis, aging
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phytohormones
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- regulate plant growth and development and activity at very low concentrations
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gibberellins
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- plant hormones that promote seed germination, stem growth, fruit development etc.
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growth vs. time graph
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- s shape
-lag phase -log phase -stationary phase |
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trophic growth movements
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- growth affected by environmental factors
-ie. light: phototrophic |
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if you stimulate cells on the left, the plant will grow towards the _____
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right (cause the left side gets longer, and it becomes convex)
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apical dominance
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- mediated by auxin
- the part of the plant that have auxin has apical dominance. |
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shoot and root responses to gravity
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- shoots grow awy from gravity, roots grow towards gravity
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abscisic acid
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- keeps seeds dormant
- it has to degrade or leech out before the seed will germinate |
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light requirement for seed germination
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- if the last pigment they are exposed to is far red, then they wont grow
- if the last pigment they are exposed to is red, then they will grow |
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phytochrome
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- a single pigment that can absorb two different wavelengths of life (through conformational change)
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giberellin treatment can substitute for:
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- light treatment
- chilling treatment |
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asexual vs. sexual reproduction in angiosperms
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asexual
- potato -each eye gives life to another potato sexual - flowering plants |
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photoperiodism (3 categories)
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plants flower depending on the length of day and night
Short day plant - (have a maximum for day length) long day plant - (have a minmum for day length) - day neutral plants (depend on how many leaves have budded) |
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florigen
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- a protein produced in leaves
- it signals to the plant how much time in the day is light/dark |
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double fertilization in angiosperms
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- generative cell makes 2 sperms:
- 1 ferrtilized the egg - 1 combined with two polar bodies to make endosperm (triploid). makes the fruit |
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types of environmental stresses
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1) biotic stress
2) abiotic stresses - temp, chemicals, oxidation, pressure (wind), drought, |
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responses to env. stress
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1) avoidance/resitance (fights stress)
2) tolerance (develop stress) 3) avoid stress |
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pneumatophores
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- when there is oxygen deficiency
- roots stick up out of the ground to get oxygen |
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responses to insect stress
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1) inhibits its own material form being digested by insects
2) send chemical signals for the predators of insects |
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responses to cutting or grazing
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- removes apical dominance, so more side branches come out of the bottom of the shoot.
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diversity of life (3 parts)
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- genetic variation
- species composition - function (ie. biochemical pathways, photosynthesis) |
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species diversity
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the number of species and
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how many species are there around?
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- 3-100 million eukaryotes
- unknown number of prokaryotes (10k identified) |
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___% of species are extinct
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99
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main factors that control diversity
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- area (doubling area increase 10-25% of species)
- climate (warm, wet areas have more species) |
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arthropods
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animals without bones. most diverse type of life
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fish, birds, mammals reptiles/amph (order in terms of diversity)
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fish > reptiles > birds > mammals
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genetic diversity. who has the most?
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prokaryotes. the measure of genetic difference (evolutary differences)
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functional diversity. who has the most?
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prokaryotes.
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the oldest organisms on the planet
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prokaryotes
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major groups of prokaryotes
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1) bacteria
2) archaea (closer related to eukaria than bacteria) |
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archea defining factors
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- distinctive lipids in cell membranes
- absence of peptidoglycan in cell wall - lipid monolayer |
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bacterium structure
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- capsule
- cell membrane + cell wall (HAS peptidoglycan) |
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where do bacteria perform respiration/photosynthesis?
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- the cell membrane is highly folded, done here
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morphologies of bacteria (3)
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-spheres=cocci
- rods = bacilli - helical = spirilli |
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gram staining
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gram+ : thick cell wall (darker after staining)
gram - : thin cell wall between two membranes |
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antibiotics are usually ineffective against gram ___ bacteria
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negative
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repoduction in bacteria
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- asexual reproduction: binary fission (rapid)
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plasmids
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- genes that are easil transferred, not part of chromosones by conjugation
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conjugation vs. transformation vs. transduction
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genetic material.
sharing vs. finding outside stuff vs. virally transported |
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homeostasis in bacteria
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- form endospores: strongly protect bacteria from adverse conditions
- biofilms: for example, plaque. |
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chemotaxis
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movement to or from chemical signals
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how do bacteria get around?
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- flagella (thinner and more than in euk)
- glide roll, use gas inside cell |
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obilgate anaerobes vs. facultative anaerobes vs. aerotolerant anaerobes
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cant survive with oxygen in air. use oxygen if its around. can survive with oxygen, but dont use it
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roles of heterotrophic prokaryotes
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- decomposers
-symbiosis with eukaryotes -pathogens |
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exotoxins vs. endotoxin
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secreted by proteins (very toxic, ie. botulin toxin). endotoxins (outer bacteria membrane rarely fatal, ie. salmonella)
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who are bacteria classified now?
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- according to DNA sequencing, used to be shape and gramstain
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taxonomy
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- binomial nomenclature (each species gets two part names, genus followed by species).
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hierarchy of biology (7)
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kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
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clade
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a part of a phylogenetic tree that has a common root
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sister group
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- a group with the exact same root
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outgroup
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with only a same root far back
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analogy vs. homology
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analogy
- convergent evolution (bird wing and insect wing), similar function homology - shared ancestry (bat wing and mammal arms) |
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monopyletic group
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has one common ancestor
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derived trait
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a trait shared by a group but not in their anscestor
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synapomorphy
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a derived trait shared by a group AND their ancestors
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eukayotes and peptidoglycan
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- never have it
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from prokaryote to eukaryote evolutionary
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- losing cell wall is crucial to allow inward folding and increase of cell suface area
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endosymbiosis
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- one cell swallows another but doesnt digest it
evidence: - doubel cell membrane around mitochondria -mitochondrial genes matcdh baterial genes - mitochondria and chloroplasts reproduce indep. of cell |
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amoebas
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- protists
- may have hard shell - move with pseudopods and cytoplasmic streaming -unicellular - some are pathogenic |
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slime moldes
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- form large aggregates
-reproduce with fruiting bodies (simialr to spores) |
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common anscestor of plasts had a single endosymbiosis eve
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- uptake of cyanobacterium
- |
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glaucophytes
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a type of chlorophyll having eukaryote that has some peptidoglycan
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green algae (clorophytes)
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- unicellular and colonial
-live anywhere -large diversity |
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red algae
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- multicellular
- marine -have agar - have accessory pigments -look like corals |
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excavates
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- eukaryotes that lost miochondria (evolutionary reversal)
- unicellular - have flagella - symbionts (need other lfie to live). ie. live in termite stomachs, help digest wood DIPLOS AND PARABS |
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alveolates (what is, and 3 types)
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- cellulose in cell walls
- ciliates -apicomplexans -dinofalleglates |
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-apicomplexans
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- unicellular, non-functional chloroplasts, need hosts
-ex: plasmodium. infects red blood cells. |
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ciliates
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are in here (have cilia, unicellular aquaic)
ex: paramecium |
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dinoflagellates
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- have two flagella
- marine primpary production - can cause red tides - release neurotixins that shellfish eat |
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rizaria (what is, two types)
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- have long, thin psuedopods
- foraminarians - radiolarians |
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- foraminarians
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- marine
- form web like pseudopods - secrete calcium carbide (made limestone in oceans) |
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radiolarians
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- marine zooplankton
- thin, stuff pseudopods |
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stramenophiles
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- two unequal flagella, 1 has hairs
- brown algae |
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brown algae
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, multicellular, large
- form kelp forests -attach to rocks with glue |
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diatomes
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- unicellular
- source of diacomaceuous eath (toothpaste, metal polish, pools) |
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oomycetes
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- caused the potato famine
- decomposers - water molds and downy mildews - unicellular (filamentous) |
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fungi are (6)
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absorptive heterotrophs
- DECOMPOSERS (SAPROBES) - CELL WALL OF CHITIN - MULTICELLULAR - |
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hyphae (what is it), 2 types
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long branches of fungi filaments. mycelium are a tangled mass of hyphae.
septae (cross walls) coenocyctic (no cross walls) |
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septate
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cross-wall
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mushrooms (fruiting bodies) produce spores by ________
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formed for sexual reproduction meosis
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mycorrihiza (how it benefits plants and fungi)
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- plants: get water an minerals
fungi: get carbs |
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lcihens
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fungus + cyanobacterium (or unicell. green algae)
- they are pioneer species, can indicate air pollution |
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phylogeny of fungi
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Flourished during Permian
Closely related to animals – domain of botanists for >100 years ~70,000 species known |
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key principles of exp design
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1. Developing a hypothesis
2. Designing an experiment with controls 3. Designing an experiment with replication 4. Randomizing treatments |
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macronuclei vs. micronuclei in paramecium
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micro controls sex. macro control functions
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