Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
163 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
Levels of Body Organization
|
1.) Chemical
2.) Cellular 3.) Tissue 4.) Organ 5.) System 6.) Organism |
|
|
Chemical Level
|
Atoms and Molecules
|
|
|
Cellular Level
|
Cells: the basic structural and functional units of an organism
|
|
|
Tissue Level
|
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Tissues
Groups of cells and the materials surrounding them that work together to perform a particular function |
|
|
Organ Level
|
Organs: structures composed of two or more different types of tissues and have a specific function
|
|
|
System Level
|
Systems: consist of related organs with a common function
|
|
|
Organism Level
|
Organism: any living thing or individual
|
|
|
Basic Life Processes
|
1.) Metabolism
2.) Responsiveness 3.) Differentiation |
|
|
Metabolism
|
The sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body (catabolism and anabolism)
|
|
|
Responsiveness
|
The body's ability to detect and respond to changes internally and externally
|
|
|
Differentiation
|
The development of a cell from an unspecialized state to a specialized state
|
|
|
Negative Feedback System
|
Reverses a change in a controlled condition [e.g. blood pressure]
|
|
|
Positive Feedback System
|
Strengthens/reinforces a change in one of the body's controlled conditions [e.g. childbirth]
|
|
|
Anatomical Position
|
Subject stands erect facing the observer with the head level and the eyes facing directly forward. The feet are flat on the floor and directed forward, the upper limbs are at the sides with the palms turned forward.
|
|
|
Body Fluids
|
Dilute, water solutions containing dissolved chemicals found inside cells as well as surrounding them
|
|
|
Intracellular Fluid (ICF)
|
Fluid within cells
|
|
|
Extracellular Fluid (ECF)
|
Fluid outside body cells, differs depending on where it occurs in the body [e.g. interstitial fluids, blood plasma, lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, synovial fluid, aqueous humor, vitreous body]
|
|
|
Medial
|
Nearer to the midline
|
|
|
Lateral
|
Sides, farther from the midline
|
|
|
Superior
|
Toward the upper part of a structure
|
|
|
Inferior
|
The lower part of a structure
|
|
|
Proximal
|
Nearer to the attachment of a limb to the trunk; nearer to the origination of a structure
|
|
|
Anterior
|
Nearer to or at the front of the body
|
|
|
Posterior
|
Nearer to or at the back of the body
|
|
|
Intermediate
|
Between two structures
|
|
|
Ipsilateral
|
On the same side of the body as another structure
|
|
|
Contralateral
|
On the opposite side of the body from another structure
|
|
|
Distal
|
Farther from the attachment of a limb to the trunk; farther from the origination of a structure
|
|
|
Superficial
|
Toward or on the surface of the body
|
|
|
Deep
|
Away from the surface of the body
|
|
|
Sagittal Plane
|
A vertical plane that divides the body/organ into right and left sides
|
|
|
Midsagittal Plane
|
Vertical plane that divides the body/organ into EQUAL left and right sides [e.g. straight down the middle of the body from the anterior view]
|
|
|
Parasagittal Plane
|
Vertical plane that divides the body/organ into UNequal left and right sides
|
|
|
Frontal Plane
|
Divides the body/organ into anterior and posterior portions [e.g. straight down the middle of the body from the lateral view]
|
|
|
Transverse Plane
|
Horizontal plane that divides the body/organ into superior and inferior portions (cross-section) [e.g. across the middle of the body]
|
|
|
Oblique Plane
|
Passes through the body/organ at an oblique angle [e.g. diagonally through the leg]
|
|
|
Cranial Cavity
|
Formed by the cranial bones and contains the brain
|
|
|
Vertebral Canal
|
Formed by the vertebral column and contains the spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves
|
|
|
Thoracic Cavity
|
Chest cavity (Pleural and Pericardial cavities and the Mediastinum)
|
|
|
Pleural Cavity
|
Surrounds each lung with a serous membrane
|
|
|
Pericardial Cavity
|
Surrounds the heart with a serous membrane
|
|
|
Mediastinum
|
Central portion of the thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from the sternum to the vertebral column and from the first rib to the diaphragm; contains the heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels
|
|
|
Abdominopelvic Cavity
|
Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities
|
|
|
Abdominal Cavity
|
Contains the stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of the large intestine
|
|
|
Ionic bond
|
The force of attraction that holds together ions with opposite charges
|
|
|
Covalent bond
|
(most common)
Two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them; the larger the number of electron pairs shared, the stronger the bond |
|
|
Polar covalent bonds
|
The sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal
Attracts electrons more strongly, thus greater electronegativity |
|
|
Nonpolar covalent bonds
|
Two atoms share the electrons equally
[the bonds between two identical atoms are always nonpolar covalent] |
|
|
Catabolism
|
The breakdown of complex chemical substances into simpler components
|
|
|
Anabolism
|
The building up of complex chemical substances from small, simpler components`
|
|
|
Growth
|
An increase in body size that results from an increase in the size of existing cells, and increase in the number of cells, or both
|
|
|
Oxidation
|
The loss of electrons, release of energy
|
|
|
Reduction
|
The gain of electrons, reduced substances gain energy
|
|
|
Denaturation
|
The loss of a protein structure's characteristic shape and function due to a hostile environment
|
|
|
Hydrolysis
|
The breakdown of large molecules into smaller molecules by adding a water molecule
|
|
|
Hydrophobic
|
Molecules that contain mainly non polar covalent bonds, therefore not very soluble in water
|
|
|
Hydrophilic
|
Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds, therefore dissolve in water easily
|
|
|
Amphipathic
|
Molecules that have both polar and nonpolar parts
|
|
|
Ionized
|
When an atom has a positive or negative charge because it has unequal numbers of protons and electrons
|
|
|
pH
|
A solution's acidity or alkalinity is expressed on this scale [0-14]
pH <7 acidic pH =7 neutral pH >7 basic |
|
|
Plasma membrane
|
Made up of a phospholipid layer, forms the cell's outer boundary and separates the cell's internal environment from the outside environment
5% glycolipids 20% cholesterol (contributes to fluidity) Amphipathic: polar heads and nonpolar tails Selectively permeable More concentrated inside than outside the cell More positive inside and more negative outside |
|
|
Integral proteins
|
Extend into or through the lipid bilayer among the fatty acid tails and are firmly embedded
|
|
|
Transmembrane proteins
|
Span the entire lipid bilayer and protrude into both the cytosol and the extracellular fluid
|
|
|
Mitochondria
|
Generate most of the ATP through aerobic respiration
|
|
|
Ribosomes
|
The sites of protein synthesis
|
|
|
Lysosomes
|
Membrane-enclosed vesicles that form from the Golgi complex, can contain as many as 60 kinds of powerful digestive and hydrolytic enzymes that can break down a wide variety of molecules once they fuse with vesicles formed during endocytosis
|
|
|
Golgi complex
|
Consists of 3-20 small, flattened membranous sacs with bulging edges, the site of the first step in the transport pathway though an organelle
|
|
|
Cytoskeleton
|
A network of protein filaments that extends throughout the cytosol
|
|
|
Rough Endoplasmic reticulum
|
Continuous with the nuclear membrane and usually is folded into a series of flattened sacs, the outer surface is studded with ribosomes, the site for processing and sorting proteins
|
|
|
Vesicles
|
A small, spherical sac in which a variety of substances are transported from one structure to another within cells
|
|
|
Simple diffusion
|
A substance moves across the lipid bilayer of the plasma membrane without the help of membrane transport proteins
|
|
|
Facilitated diffusion
|
An integral membrane protein assists a specific substance across the membrane [either channel-mediated (diffusion of potassium ions through a gated channel) or carrier-mediated (diffusion of glucose across a plasma membrane)]
|
|
|
Osmosis
|
The net movement of water through a selectively permeable membrane from an area of high concentration to low concentration
|
|
|
Tonicity
|
The concentration of salt solutions in the blood and elsewhere
|
|
|
Primary active transport
|
Energy derived from hydrolysis of ATP changes the shape of a carrier protein, which "pumps" a substance across a plasma membrane against its concentration gradient
|
|
|
Secondary active transport
|
The energy stored in a Na or H concentration gradient is used to drive other substances across the membrane against their own concentration gradients
|
|
|
Receptor-mediated endocytosis
|
A highly selective type of endocytosis by which cells take up specific ligands,
a vesicle forms after a receptor protein in the plasma membrane recognizes and binds to a particular particle in the extracellular fluid |
|
|
Phagocytosis
|
A form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles
|
|
|
Pinocytosis
|
Also known as bulk-phase endocytosis, a form of endocytosis in which tiny droplets of extracellular fluid are taken up
|
|
|
exocytosis
|
Releases materials from a cell
|
|
|
Transcription
|
Occurs in the nucleus, the DNA is used as a template to make an RNA strand
|
|
|
Translation
|
Occurs in the cytoplasm, the mRNA is used as a template by amino acids to produce a protein strand
|
|
|
Mitosis
|
The distribution of two sets of chromosomes into two separate nuclei [PMAT]
|
|
|
Prophase
|
The chromatin condenses into chromosomes, the mitotic spindle begins to form, and the nuclear envelope disappears
|
|
|
Metaphase
|
The microtubules of the mitotic spindle align the centromeres of the chromatid pairs at the metaphase plate
|
|
|
Anaphase
|
The centromeres split, separating the two members of each chromatid pair and pulling them towards opposite poles of the cell
|
|
|
Telophase
|
After chromosomal movement stops, the chromosomes uncoil and revert to chromatin. A nuclear envelope forms around each mass and the mitotic spindle breaks up
|
|
|
4 types of tissues
|
Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous
|
|
|
Epithelial vs. Connective
|
Epithelial cells are tightly packed with little or no extracellular matrix, while connective tissue has a large amount of extracellular matrix that separates the cells which are usually widely scattered
|
|
|
Fibroblasts
|
Large, flat ells with branching processes that secrete the fibres and certain components of the ground substance of the extracellular matrix
|
|
|
Microphages
|
A type of white blood cells with an irregular shape with short branching projections and are capable of engulfing bacteria and cellular debris
|
|
|
Plasma cells
|
Small and develop from a type of white blood cell and secrete antibodies and are an important part of the body's immune system
|
|
|
Mast cells
|
Produce histamine that dilates small blood vessels as part of the inflammatory response
|
|
|
Adipocytes
|
Store triglycerides and are found deep in the skin and around organs such as the heart and kidneys
|
|
|
White blood cells
|
Not normally found in connective tissue, but in response to certain conditions they migrate from the blood into the tissue
|
|
|
Collagen fibres
|
Very strong and resist pulling forces, but they are not stiff which allows for tissue flexibility. They often occur in parallel bundles and are found in bone, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments
|
|
|
Elastic fibres
|
Branch and join together to form a fibrous network within a connective tissue. They are strong but can be stretched up to 150% of their relaxed length without breaking, and can return to their original shape after being stretched. Found in the skin, blood vessel walls, and lung tissue
|
|
|
Reticular fibres
|
Arranged in fine bundles with a coating of glycoprotein, provide support in the walls of blood vessels and form a network around the cells in some tissues. They provide support and strength, and also help form the basement membrane
|
|
|
Tight junctions
|
Fuse together the outer surfaces of adjacent plasma membranes to seal off passageways between adjacent cells
|
|
|
Adherens junctions
|
attach both to membrane proteins and to microfiliments of the cytoskeleton to join two cells
|
|
|
Desmosomes
|
Extend into the intercellular space between adjacent cell membranes and attach cells to one another
|
|
|
Hemidesmosomes
|
Attach to intermediate filaments made of the protein keratin and anchor cells to the basement membrane
|
|
|
Gap junctions
|
Connect neighbouring cells and allow the cells in tissue to communicate with one another and enable nerve or muscle impulses to spread rapidly among cells
|
|
|
Epithelial membranes
|
Mucous, Serous, Cutaneous, and Synovial
|
|
|
Mucous membrane
|
Lines a body cavity that opens directly to the exterior (digestive, respiratory, and reproductive tracts and much of the urinary tract), the tight junctions prevent leakage between the cells
|
|
|
Serous membrane
|
Lines a body cavity that does not open directly to the exterior and covers the organs that are within the cavity. It secretes fluid that allows organs to glide easily over one another or slide against the walls of cavities
|
|
|
Cutaneous membrane
|
Covers the entire surface of the body and consists of a superficial portion called the epidermis and a deeper portion called the dermis. It protects underlying tissues
|
|
|
Synovial membrane
|
Lines cavities of freely movable joints and structures that do not open to the exterior. It secrets fluid that lubricates joints and nourishes the cartilage covering the bones at movable joints
|
|
|
Hyaline cartilage
|
Most abundant, covers long bones, anterior ends of ribs, nose, parts of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes, and the embryonic and fetal skeleton. It provides a smooth surface for movement in joints, flexibility, and support. Weakest type
|
|
|
Fibrocartilage
|
Thick bundles of collagen fibres, very strong and tough. Found in the pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs, menisci of knee pad, and portions of tendons that insert into cartilage. Supports and joining structures together. Strongest type
|
|
|
Elastic cartilage
|
Made of chondrocytes located in a thread-liek network of fibres. Found in the epiglottis, part of the external ear, and the auditory tubes. It provides strength and elasticity, maintains shape of certain structures
|
|
|
Simple Squamous epithelium
|
Flat cells with a flattened or oval spherical shape, when viewed from an apical surface they look like a tiled floor
|
|
|
Simple cuboidal epithelium
|
Single layer of cube-shaped cells; round with a centrally located nucleus
|
|
|
Simple columnar epithelium (& ciliated)
|
Single layer of column-like cells with oval nuclei near the base of the cells
(ciliated with cilia protruding from the top) |
|
|
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium
|
Appears to have several layers because the cells' nuclei are at different levels, but all cells are attached to the base
|
|
|
Stratified Squamous epithelium
|
Two or more layers of cells in an apical layer and sever layers deep
|
|
|
Stratified cuboidal epithelium
|
Two or more layers of cells in an apical layer are cube-like shaped
|
|
|
Stratified columnar epithelium
|
The basal layers usually consist of shortened, irregularly shaped cells, only the apical layer has columnar cells
|
|
|
Transitional epithelium
|
Has a variable appearance: When relaxed, it looks like stratified cuboidal epithelium, and when stretched it looks like stratified squamous epithelium
|
|
|
Merocrine glands
|
Secretions are synthesized on ribosomes attached to the rough ER, processed, sorted, and packed by the golgi complex, and released from the cell in secretory vesicles via exocytosis
|
|
|
Apocrine glands
|
Accumulate their secretory product at the apical surface of the secreting cell, then that portion of the cell pinches off by exocytosis from the rest of the cell to release the secretion
|
|
|
Holocrine glands
|
Accumulate the secretory product in their cytosol, and as the secretory cell matures it ruptures and becomes the secretory product
|
|
|
Areolar CT
|
Consists of fibres arranged randomly and several kinds of cells embedded in semifluid ground substance
|
|
|
Adipose tissue
|
Has cells derived from fibroblasts that are specialized for storage of triglycerides as a large, centrally located droplet.
|
|
|
Reticular CT
|
Fine interlacing network of reticular fibres (thin form of collagen fibre) and reticular cells
|
|
|
Dense regular CT
|
Shiny white extracellular matrix with mainly collagen fibres regularly arranged in bundles with fibroblasts in rows between bundles
|
|
|
Dense irregular CT
|
Collagen fibres, usually irregularly arranged with a few fibroblasts
|
|
|
Elastic CT
|
Predominantly elastic fibres with fibroblasts between fibres
|
|
|
Parenchyma
|
Cells that constitute the functioning part of the tissue or organ
|
|
|
Stroma
|
New cells originate by cell division from this supporting connective tissue
|
|
|
Fibrosis
|
The fibroblasts synthesize collagen and other extracellular matrix materials that aggregate to form scar tissue
|
|
|
Granulation tissue
|
This new tissue forms across a wound or surgical incision to provide a framework that supports the epithelial cells that migrate into the open area and fill it
|
|
|
Keratinocytes
|
Produce the protein keratin which helps protect the skin and underlying tissues from abrasions, heat, microbes, and chemicals. They also produce lamellar granules, which release a water-repellant sealant that decreases water entry and loss and inhibits the entry of foreign materials
|
|
|
Melanocytes
|
Produce pigment melanin, which contributes to skin colour and absorbs damaging UV light
|
|
|
Langerhans cells
|
Participate in immune responses mounted against microbes that invade the skin, which helps other cells of the immune system recognize an invading microbe and destroy it
|
|
|
Merkel cells
|
Detect touch sensations
|
|
|
Layers of the skin
|
Epidermis and dermis
|
|
|
Epidermal layer
|
The superficial, thinner portion which covers the deeper layers of skin
|
|
|
Dermal layer
|
The deeper, thicker connective tissue portion which has great tensile strength and has the ability to stretch and recoil easily. It is essential to the survival of the epidermis
|
|
|
Thermoregulation
|
The homeostatic regulation of body temperature.
The skin contributes to this in two ways: liberating sweat at its surface and by adjusting the flow of blood to the dermis |
|
|
Blood reservoir
|
The dermis houses an extensive network of blood vessels that carry 8-10% of the total blood of an adult
|
|
|
Protection
|
Keratin guards against microbes, abrasion, heat, and chemicals. Lipids guard against dehydration and excessive water intake. Oily sebum keeps the skin and hairs from drying out. The pigment in skin helps shield against UV light.
|
|
|
Cutaneous sensations
|
Touch, pressure, vibration, tickling, and thermal sensations and pain are felt because of the multiple nerve endings and receptors distributed throughout the skin
|
|
|
Excretion and absorption
|
Allows sweat to be released, which removes water, heat and small amounts of salt, carbon dioxide, and ammonia and urea.
Absorbs vitamins A, D, E, and K; certain drugs, and oxygen and carbon dioxide |
|
|
Synthesis of vitamin D
|
UV rays are absorbed and then enzymes in the liver and kidneys modify the activated molecule, finally producing calcitriol, which aids in the absorption of calcium from foods in the gastrointestinal tract into the blood
|
|
|
Pigmentation of skin
|
Melanin causes the skin's colour to vary from pale yellow to reddish-brown to black. The amount of pigment the melanocytes produces and transfers to keratinocytes determines the differences in skin colour.
|
|
|
Albinism and vitiligo
|
Albinism: the inability to produce melanin
Vitiligo: the partial or complete loss of melanocytes from patches of skin |
|
|
Hair growth cycle
|
Growth - regression - resting
|
|
|
Types of hair
|
Lanugo: fine, nonpigmented downy hair that covers the body of the fetus
Terminal: long coarse, heavily pigmented hair Vellus: short, fine, pale hairs barely visible to the naked eye |
|
|
Sebaceous glands
|
Simple, branched acinar glands that are connected to hair follicles and secrete sebum which coats the surface of hairs and helps keep them from drying out. It also prevents excessive evaporation from the skin
|
|
|
Sudoriferous glands
|
[sweat glands] release sweat into hair follicles or onto the skin surface through pores
|
|
|
Epidermal wound healing
|
Occurs following superficial wounds that affect only the epidermis. Cells migrate towards each other to replace the epidermal layer
|
|
|
Deep wound healing
|
Occurs when an injury extends to the dermis and subcutaneous layer. Inflammatory phase, migratory phase, proliferative phase, and maturation phase
|
|
|
Types of bone cells
|
Osteogenic, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts
|
|
|
Osteogenic cells
|
Precursor cells that develop into an osteoblast by cell division
|
|
|
Osteoblasts
|
For the bone extracellular matrix, and develop into osteocytes
|
|
|
Osteocytes
|
Maintain bone tissue, mature bone cells
|
|
|
Osteoclasts
|
Take away components of bone derived from monocytes (resorption)
|
|
|
Hematopoiesis
|
Production of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in red bone marrow
|
|
|
Types of bone formation
|
Osteogenesis/ossification [intramembranous and endochondral]
|
|
|
Intramembranous ossification
|
Produces spongy bone, which can be remodeled to form compact bone. Forms the flat bones of the skull, mandible and clavicle.
1.) development of ossification centre 2.) calcification 3.) formation of trabecular 4.) development of periosteum |
|
|
Endochondral ossification
|
Cartilage replaced by bone
Mesenchymal - Chondroblasts - Osteoblasts 1.) development of cartilage model 2.) growth of cartilage model 3.) development of primary ossification centre 4.) development of the medullary cavity 5.) development of secondary ossification centre 6.) formation of articular cartilage and epiphyseal plate |
|
|
Components of an osteon
|
Central canal [blood and lymphatic vessels found here], concentric lamellae, lacunae [small spaces between the lamallae, house osteocytes], canaliculi [small channels filled with extracellular fluid connecting the lacunae], interstitial lamallae, Volkmann's canals (perforating) [allow transit of these vessels to the outer cortex of the bone], circumferential lamallae [outer encircles the bone beneath the periosteum, inner encircles the medullary cavity], perforating sharpey's fibres
|
