Biology 3.6

Refers to the transmission of ideas over time. Cultural evolution can happen continuously within a lifetime, it is directed and change is relatively rapid. Whereas biological evolution happens relatively slowly over generations with new information produced in the random process of mutation.

Associated with Homo habilis. These tools were simple river worn pebbles crudely fashioned with a minimum number of flakes being removed. These tools typically had flakes knocked from several angles (approx. 6 blows) to produce a core with a cutting edge and flakes which may have been used for cutting. Homo habilis would have lacked the necessary intelligence to fashion more intricately worked tools. These tools would have allowed them to access food that other species could not, such as scavenging bone marrow. (This may also have provided the protein required for further brain development.)

Associated with Homo erectus. These tools were 'tear drop' is shape with a broad face and bi-face bulge on either side. Commonly referred to as hand-axes, these tools are more similar in design to each other than Oldowan tools and would have required a greater degree of working and many more blows (approx 50) to create in removing the flakes. H. erectus would use the hand axes to dig roots, hack tree branches, and (for flakes) scrape and cut animal hides. This would have benefitted their users by providing more food and perhaps defence from predators.

Associated with Homo neanderthalensis. Made with flint which breaks more predictably these tools have finer workmanship than Acheulian hand axes. Techniques required retouching of stone which required an increased number of blows (approx 150) to produce.Tools were more diverse in their form and functions. The blades were sharper, requiring more blows to produce. Each tool was more specialised. Rope may have been used to create spears for hunting, and awls were made for punching holes in hide which, with hide lacings, could be used to make clothing, benefitting the Neanderthals to survive in their cold environment in ice-age Europe.

Associated with Homo sapiens. Modern humans had the necessary intelligence to produce an increased range of tool types using a range of techniques requiring much finer workmanship (approx 250 blows). The most significant development was that they used a variety of materials, including bone, ivory and antler. This enabled a diverse range of tools, including very finely worked and delicate items, to be made. This included fish hooks and harpoons, increasing their diet, and needles, improving their clothing and even enabling the manufacture of shelters. This could have allowed their range to increase and allowed for a rapid expansion and colonisation of even areas enabling humans to optimize their exploitation of the environment.

Each of the tool cultures is more refined than the last, more specialised for specific tasks, more diverse in the materials used, and showed greater design ability and an increase in the dexterity of the species that used them.

The period of human culture that began around 10,000 years ago in the Middle East and later in other parts of the world. It is characterised by the beginning of farming, the domestication of animals, development of crafts such as pottery and weaving, and the making of polished stone tools. The Neolithic period is generally considered to end for any particular region with the introduction of metalworking, writing, or other developments of urban civilisation. Also called New Stone Age.

Fire is first associated with Homo erectus. Fire is a powerful tool, providing warmth in cooler climates, deterring predators and hunting. The light can be used to extend the time in which hominins can socialise and carry out the necessary activities required of them. Fire is also used to cook food, which improves the nutritional value by making food more palatable or easily digestible and killing pathogens and extending the time taken to spoil.

The domestication of plants and animals began simultaneously across a number of modern human populations approximately 10,000 years ago after the conclusion of the last ice age. Prior to that humans had led hunter-gatherer lifestyles, dependent upon wild plants and animals which change seasonally and with location. Domestication by means of selective breeding produced a sustainable and excess food supply which allowed others not involved directly with food production to specialise in other tasks. Large permanent settlements could be established with ever increasing cultural complexity, further enhanced by commercial trade with neighbouring settlements. Ideas and technology have quickly spread, increasing the rate of cultural evolution.

Neanderthals and modern humans used artistic representations to convey meaning through symbolism to other individuals, representing ideas about the unknown, hunting, fertility and death. The archaeological record show that these species were producing rock art, music, sculpture and other necklaces from 35,000 years ago. The modern human mind has evolved to infer agency and intent with a pattern seeking psychology, all of which has led to spiritual ideas independently flourishing as a human universal.

controls language expression-area of the frontal lobe in left hemisphere that directs muscle movements invloved in speech

Refers to the changes at the genetic level over time and its subsequent effect on behaviour, anatomy and physiology. It is the inheritance of favourable alleles as they arise through mutation and are shuffled through the process of sexual selection. Mutations are random, whereas selection is non-random.

Primates are an order of the Mammal class, characterised by relatively large brains, a generalised dental pattern, prehensile digits, binocular colour cision and complex social groupings.

Habitual movement is on 4 limbs

Habitual movement is on 2 limbs

Different Hominin species had differing dietry requirements. In fossils this can be determined primarily by examining cranial features, but also by examining sub-cranial features such as the ribs whose shape indicates the relative size of the gut. Australopithicines were likely scavengers with an omnivorous diet, Paranthropus were likely vegetarian and the genus of Homo omnivorous with tool technologies which enabled an ever greater exploitation of the environment leading to better nutrition necessary for expansion of the brain.

The bony crest on the top of the skull used for attachment of powerful jaw muscles which run down to the mandible. Found in the genus of Paranthropus, and are indicative of a vegetative diet which requires more mastication.

The arch of bone through which muscles run from the top of the skull down to the mandible. The relatively large zygomatic arch in the genus of Paranthropus indicates the presence of powerful chewing muscles necessary for a vegetative diet.

The jaw bone. In the genus of Paranthropus the mandible is large and robust, providing a large surface area for the attachment of powerful chewing muscles. In Australopithecine and Homo species the mandible is less pronounced. The mandible in humans has a pronounced chin.

The teeth at the back of the jaw used for grinding and mashing. They are large and heavily enamelled in species belonging to the genus of Paranthropus, indicative of a vegetative diet.

Described as having a U-shape in apes, with the molars parallel to each other, and a V-shape in modern humans.

Protect the eyes. They are relatively large in apes and ancestral hominin forms, and absent in modern humans with the enlarged cranium.

Describes the style of locomotion. In human evolution there is a trend to improved bipedal efficiency. All ancestral hominins were bipedal, with modern humans having a range of anatomical features which have improved bipedal efficiency. Bipedalism conferred significant survival advantages to early hominins; including thermal regulation, predator detection, energy efficiency and provisioning using the hands which are free to carry items such as food and manipulate the environment using tools.

The bony protrusion at the back of the skull used for the attachment of neck muscles. In quadrapedal apes the nuchal crests are large and pronounced, enabling the skull to be held level with the ground so that the eyes are facing forward.

The hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal column enters. The foramen magnum is located at the rear of the skull in quadrapeds and is centrally located in fully upright modern humans.

Acts as a shock absorber to efficiently carry the weight above the pelvis.

In modern humans the legs are angled under the pelvis so that the weight of the body is better supported when one leg is off the ground in a bipedal gait.

Describes the shape of the human pelvis which efficiently carries the weight of the upper body above the legs. The narrowing of the birth canal means that modern humans give birth to relatively underveloped offspring which require prolonged parental care. Much of the brain growth occurs after birth. This infant dependency is likely to have influenced the mating strategies of humans, with humans tending towards monogamous relationships.

In modern humans the femur is lengthened which improves the stride length and therefore bipedal efficiency. The femur has modifications at the upper end (femoral head) so that the legs are angled under the pelvis.

The human foot is arched to act as a shock absorber and the relatively short big toe is forward facing alongside the other digits. This provides the final push off in a bipedal gait, and makes the gait more efficient.

Unlike other apes, the human thumb is fully opposable. THe thumb is relatively long and is able to touch the end of the other digits. The dextrous ability of the human hand enables modern humans to manipulate objects to a fine extent. We have a well-developed precision grip in addition to a power grip, which has afforded modern humans a significant adaptive advantage.

Estimates of brain size in extinct hominin are taken by measuring the volume of the cranium, with a measure of intelligence estimated by comparing brain size to body size.

These two regions of the brain are well developed in modern humans, with Wernicke's area associated with comprehension of language, and Broca's area used in the production of sounds needed for complex language.

Modern humans have sophisticated language skills, and are able to communicate complex ideas for planning, hunting, learning cooperating and other social transactions. This would have provided a significant adaptive advantage.

Thermoregulation, Carrying objects, Height, Energy Efficient

(transmission of factors inherited from parents)

(transmission of beliefs, ideas, knowledge by learning from other members of group) Tools, Fire, Shelter, Clothing, Food-Gathering, Abstract thought, Domestication of plants and animals.

Arched (shock absorbing; walk longer distances). Toes face forward, longer big toe (provides thrust). Big heel bone (firm base to push against for walking/running)

Flat feet, big toe separate, facing outwards from foot and opposable (grasping branches and climbing trees)

Femur hangs inward angle from hip (center of gravity between feet)

Knee Joint (maintains centre of gravity) Buttresses (creates valgus angle, prevents sideways movemetn of lower leg)

Femur hangs vertically from hip, knee joint, no buttresses or valgus angle (gives better swinging motion in branches)

H: S shape (keeps body weight above hip joints) A: Slightly curved (counterbalances downward force of organs and chest)

H: Flattened front to back, oval in cross-section (body weight brought close to spine and over centre of gravity. A: Rounded front to back, circular on cross-section (organs supported by rubs and large abdominal muscles)

H: Fully opposable thumb, straight fingers (manipulative precision grip). A: Short, opposable thumb and curved fingers (power grip and hooking)

Foramen magnum at centre of base of skull (skull balances at top of spine). No brow ridges, sagittal crest or nuchal crest.

Foramen magnum and back of skull, large brow ridges, sagittal crest, nuchal crest.

Smaller teeth and jaws (tools cutting up and fire softening). Enamel thicker and canines small. Jaw and tooth row more parabolic shaped.

Larger teeth and jaws, large canines (display, sexual diapmorphism) distema on upper tooth row, jaw and tooth row U shape.

1400cm-3 , Speacialised areas: Cerebellum (balance, swelling at back), Cerebrum (thinking skills, top surface expanded and folded), Broca's area (speech production), Wernicke's area (understanding speecha and writing) both swelling left side.

450, atter on top, no specialised areas developed.

H: longer P, lower L (modifies sound and tone of speech). A: shorter P, higher L (modification of tone and sound cannot occur)

H: finer and shorter hair but same number per cm3 and more sweat glands (cooling capacity for higher activity rates). A: thicker hairs, fewer sweat glands (insulation from sun, lower activity rates)

H: short and wide (reduces stress of upper body weight in hips, supports abdominal organs). A: tall and narrow (large surface area for leg muscle placement)

Energy efficient method that favours low speed, long distance movement - walking.

Upright - see better to spot predators or locate carcasses at a distance.

Carry objects - tools, food (where it was killed/gathered back to home base), babies (hairless so nothing to cling to).

Use objects - weapons and tools. Upright stance made wielding a stick/throwing a stone more effective.

Make tools/weapons - free hands encouraged this.

250-50Ka

About 70% to keep the body cool in hot climate of African savannah.

S-shaped spine and bowl-shaped pelvis.

Lower back troubles caused by degenerative changes with age - compounded by load carried by 2 limbs instead of 4.

Feet sometimes suffer strain because the body rests on 2 limbs - arches of feet collapse, producing flat footedness, distorted bones and even bunions.

Increased pressure in leg veins results in faulty valves.

Gut no longer hanging from spine by a broad ligament as in quadrupedals, the intestines may bulge out through weakened abdominal wall.

Small in relation to six of head of a baby (large brain) - childbirth is painful.

modern humans and our direct and indirect ancestors (after our lineage split from chimpanzees)

-range of genus Australopithecus has been pushed back to 4.2 mya and its distribution has been expanded outside Africa

-thought maybe some hominids predated australopithecus

Promisians (65 mya)

Monkeys (35 mya)

Apes (23 mya)

Hominids (5 mya)

PHYSICAL: -dense hair, -warm blooded. -live young. -suckle, -infant dependence

SOCIAL: -social life, -play, -observation and imitation, -pecking order,

~65mya split at lemurs

~35mya split at old world monkeys

~14my split at primates

~7 my split at gorillas

~6 my split at chimpanzees

-primary feature distinguishing hominids from hominoids is walking erect on two legs

evidence: -Laetoli, Tanzania footprints that are 3.6 mya, -tracks were left in wet volcanic ash, -show the creatures were fully bipedal, -big toe hardly diverges from the rest of the foot, unlike in apes, -gait= "heel-strike" followed by "toe-off", the way modern humans walk

-known between 7 and 4 mya grasslands expanded in East Africa, this hypothesis states that this opening of grassland produced environments in which bipedalism evolved, and naturally hominids began coming out of the trees

Sahelanthropus tchadensis: -date 6 to 7 mya in Chad, -unclear if bipedal,

-next oldest

-date 5 to 6 mya in Kenya

-unambiguous bipedalism

-carrying behavior

-reduction in heat stress, bipedalism facilitates heat loss, more sweat glands are exposed and standing upright is more efficient in cooling the body

-most energy efficient way to travel long distances

-allows for better vision and defensive action by having free hands

-Lucy is most complete skeleton of an early hominid

-found Ethiopia in 1974

-3.2 mya

-small brained biped

-teeth more human than ape like

-long limbs, possibly for climbing

-small brain

-3'6" and 50 lb

Homo habilis (2-1.6 mya)

Homo rudolfensis (2.4-1.6 mya)

Homo erectus (1.8mya-300,000)

Homo heidelbergensis (800,000-100,000)

Homo neanderthalensis (300,000-30,000)

Homo sapiens (130,000-present)

major advances:

-brain size

-better bipedalism

-hunting

-fire (Homo erectus)

-tools

-built shelters

-clothing (Homo neanderthalensis)

-Complex language (Homo sapien)

2.3-1.4 mya

-human features not found in australopithecines

-brain 1/2 size of modern humans

-ape like morphology by bipedal

-first stone tools

-EVIDENCE THAT BIPEDALISM CAME FIRST, THEN LARGER BRAINS

1.9mya-250,000

-larger brain than Homo habilis

-more sophisticated tools

-as large as modern humans

-used fire for cooking

-larger brain, intelligence

-AMONG FIRST HOMINIDS TO LEAVE AFRICA AND EXTEND INTO EUROPE AND ASIA

appear 600,000 years ago

-discovered in Dusseldorf

-massive brain, 10% larger

-large torso, short limbs, broad nasal passages

-culture-- fire, buried death, stone tools

-divergence from modern homo sapiens

-extinct 30,000 years ago

Homo neanderthalensis coexisted with Homo sapiens for about 20,000 years up to 60,000 years

what happened?

-killed off by Homo sapiens OR

-Homo sapiens dove them to extinction OR

-Climate change - increased temp;not suited to body shape, Mammoth (main resource for food, clothes, tools)

-Neanderthals and Homo sapiens interbred so assimilated into the sapien gene pool

-arose in Africa 250,000 years ago

-eventually spread into Europe to replace Homo erectus and Homo neanderthalensis

-modern: 35,000 years ago to present

hole in the skull, neanderthal skull

europe and WESTERN asia --> middle east

ice age, cycles of glaciation and recession (15-50 cycles), glaciers have a major effect on geography and dispersal --> created BARRIERS (western europe cut off from eurasia) and opened CAUSEWAYS *berring land bridge, sea level dropped)

1500cc

round eye sockets, large nasal cavity, sloping forehead, receding chin

much shorter than erectus (on average 5'4") or modern human but also much more robust (76Kg versus 68Kg) (not built for running like erectus, that's for sure!) --> robust bones, barrel shaped chests, shorter limbs than modern homo sapiens

shorter and more robust arms and legs, suggest cold-adaptation

long, straight, robust ribs, long clavicles --> large heart/lungs, powerful breathing

robust, strong grasp, slightly shorter thumb and phalanges than modern human

ancient DNA fragmentary and degraded, often contaminated with bacterial DNA, DNA of other animals or DNA of modern humans that may have handled the bones

DNA fragments are extracted but are not visible/measurable, PCR techniques used to replicate and extend the DNA fragments that are present, DNA sequences compared to DNA of known species for ID --> easy to separate out human/neanderthal DNA from non-hominids, but not easy to separate neanderthal from modern human DNA --> solution: COMPARE TO CHIMPS

neanderthal genome separated from H. sapiens 800Ky ago , neanderthal populations became isolated from homo sapiens 440-270Ky ago , neanderthals hybridized with modern eurasians around 40K years ago

HAIR - neanderthals have genetic similarities to red haired/fair skinned people (makes sense given their latitude) --> means pictures of neanderthals with black hair are probably wrong

mousterian industry -- prepared core --> differs from acheulean primarily in the degree of CORE PREPARATION, and FLAKE RETOUCH

idea is to control the size and shape of a flake by controlling the core -> cores and flakes, striking platform, dorsal surface, ventral surface

to strengthen an edge, thin edges will chip and break to alter shape of an edge: make a point symmetrical, prepare butt of flake for hafting --> allows resharpening after use!

21 kinds of scrapers, microwear (wood, hide, bone), 2 kind of points (some were hafted aka attached to a HANDLE but many were not), 3-4 types of notched pieces (used for working wood) --> resharpening of the tools may have been responsible for producing the 21 kinds of scrapers we see

LATE neanderthal tools, like mousterian but: blades, bone tools, ivory, antler --> potentially indicates learning from homo sapiens?

isotopes show similar carbon/nitrogen signal to large predators indicating ate MEAT, high incidence of mammoth and rhinoceros bones at living sites, little evidence of shellfish or birds -->in a cold world meat was probably the most reliable -also showed head and neck injuries indicating they probably hunted large game (pattern of injury matches rodeo bull rider injuries! lots of healed bone fractures, ones you get from falling)

45,000 year old flute from slovenia, potentially made by neanderthals, evidence of symbolism and behavioral modernity,

evidence for ritual burial of dead --> behavioral modernity!?

That the most recent woman from whom all living humans today descend is now 100,000ya and dwelled in Africa.

Typically the category of humans contrasting modern humans or humans of a much older time period, esp. from the genus 'Homo'.

A native of Asia.

Interaction between animals or any species of organism that are attempting to gain a share of a limited environmental resource.

The evidence in rock of the presence of another organism from an earlier geological period.

Transfer of alleles from one population to another (usually marked by allele frequency in the form of percentage).

The genetic material in the mitochondria of a cell (particularly of a gamete).

The theory that H. erectus left Africa 2mya to become H. sapiens in different parts of the world.

The first hypothesis proposes that a second migration out of Africa happened about 100,000 years ago, in which (anatomically) modern humans of African origin conquered the world by replacing archial human populations.

Claims that after archaic sapiens spread out from Africa to Asia and Europe that rapidly evolved.

A sex chromosome which is normally present only in male cells, which are designated XY. (contains male DNA and serves a form of evolutionary evidence)