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82 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What produces myelin? |
CNS = oligodendrocytes PNS = Schwann cells |
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Define 1. nuclei 2. nerves 3.ganglia 4. tracts |
1. nuclei = group of cell bodies in CNS 2. nerve = bundle of neurons in PNS that carry many types of information 3. ganglia = group of cell bodies in PNS 4. Tract = bundle of axons in CNS that carry only one type of information |
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At resting potential, compare the relative concentration of Na+ and K+ inside and outside the neuron |
Outside: [Na+] >> [K+] = net positive Inside: [Na+] << [K+] = net negative |
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1. What is the resting potential 2. what maintains the resting potential? 3. How? |
1. -70mV 2. Sodium-Potassium pump (ATPase) 3. Pumps 3 Na+ out and 2 K+in per 1ATP resulting in a net negative charge inside |
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What is the threshold voltage? |
-55 to -40 mV |
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At what voltage are Na+ channels: 1. activated 2.inactivated 3.de-inactivated? |
1. -55 to -40 mV = open, Na flows in 2. +35 = closed, K flows out 3. -70 = ready to open again |
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Gray matter vs White matter |
Gray matter = cell bodies. located on the outside of brain and inside of spine White matter = axons. located on inside of brain and outside of spine |
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In the spinal cord, which side does: 1. sensory information enter? 2. motor information leave? |
1. sensory input = dorsal (back) 2. motor output = ventral (front) "if you get stabbed in the back you can't FEEL your legs" |
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What is the primary difference between somatic and autonomic nervous systems? |
SNS = 1 neuron motor neuron cell body = spinal cord and axon runs to muscle without synapsing ANS = 2 neurons 1st preganglionic neuron is in CNS 2nd axon connects to postganglionic neruon in PNS 3rd PNS neuron connects to target |
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Name the NTs released by preganglionic neurons and postganglionic neurons of : 1. SNS 2. PSNS |
1. Pre = ACh post = NE 2. Pre = ACh Post = ACh |
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Which cranial nerve is largely responsible for parasympatheric intervention? |
Vagus nerve cranial nerve X controls abdominal cavity and thorax |
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In the spinal chord, Which side contains afferent and efferent information? |
Dorsal = afferent Ventral = efferent Remember, motor output goes out the front and sensory input goes in from the back "if you get stabbed in the back you can't FEEL your legs" |
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At resting potential, what is the electrochemical gradient of Na+? |
electrical gradient favors influx chemical gradient favors influx net influx favored |
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At resting potential, what is the electrochemical gradient of K+? |
electrical gradient favors influx chemical gradient favors outflux net efflux favored |
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At resting potential, what is the electrochemical gradient of Cl-? |
electrical gradient favors efflux chemical gradient favors influx Net influx favored |
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What is a concentration cell? |
Like a galvanic cell but both electrodes are made of the same material. current is generated as a function of a concentration gradient established between the two solutions surround both electrodes |
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What are common second messengers? |
cAMP IP3 = inositol triphosphate Ca2+ |
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How are peptide hormones made? |
Derived from precurser polypeptides and cleaved into smaller pieces before being sent to golgi for modifications |
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1. What is the effect of activating a G-protein coupled receptor? 2. How can it's effects have rapid or slow/long-lasting effects? |
1. Raise or lower [cAMP] cAMP activates PKA PKA activates CREB = cAMP response element binding protein 2. rapid = PKA can phosphorylate enzyme slow = downstream effect on TFs |
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Where are steroid hormones synthesized? |
Gonads Adrenal cortex |
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List some important amino acid hormones |
Epinephrine Norepinephrine triiodothyronine thyroxine |
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Direct hormone vs tropic hormone |
Direct = secreted and acts directly on target tissue Tropic = require an intermediate i.e. produced in the brain/anterior pituitary, and causes it's target to produce another hormone. e.g. GnRH |
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How does the hypothalamus receive light input? |
Suprachiasmatic nucleus |
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Alternate name for pituitary |
hypophysis |
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What are the results when the hypothalamus releases these tropic hormones? 1. GnRH 2. GHRH 3. TRH 4. CRF |
Anterior pituitary releases 1. GnRH --> LH + FSH 2. GHRH --> GH 3. TRH --> TSH thyroid releasing hormone -- stimulating 4. CRF --> ACTH corticotropin-releasing factor -- adrenocorticotropic hormone |
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1. What happens when the hypothalamus releases prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF) 2. What about when no PIF is release? |
1. PIF = dopamine. PIF causes a decrease in prolactin 2. no PIF = prolactin released by anterior pituitary |
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1. How does the hypothalamus influence the posterior pituitary? 2. anterior pituitary? |
1. nucleus in hypothalamus, axons run to posterior pituitary 2. hypothalamus releases tropic hormone into hypophyseal portal system |
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How is lactation controlled? |
Prolactin results in milk production 1. dopamine (PIF) inhibits prolactin 2. [PIF] is high during pregnancy 3. expelling placenta = decrease in [PIF] = prolactin produced |
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How is flow of milk from mammary glands controlled? |
Nipple stimulation = activation of hypothalamus hypothalamus: 1. oxytocin = contract smooth muscle in breast and squirts milk out 2. stops releasing DA [PIF] into anterior pituitary so prolactin levels can increase |
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List of hormones released by anterior pituitary |
Tropic: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH Direct: Prolactin, endorphins, GH |
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Special medical conditions associated with abnormal levels of GH |
GH = growth hormone = anterior pituitary childhood: too much --> gigantism too little --> dwarfism adulthood: only affects small bones like hand, feet, and head = acromegaly |
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What does the posterior pituitary do? |
receives and stores ADH and Oxytocin that are made in the hypothalamus |
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ADH 1. where is it made, where is it secreted? 2. function |
1. made in hypothalamus, secreted in posterior pituitary 2. Goal = decreased plasma osmolarity --> dilute the blood ADH = more water permeable nephron = more water in blood =more water retained = pee less |
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How is ADH secretion controlled? |
1. baroreceptors = stretch receptors low volume, low afferent signals = high ADH high volume, high afferent signals sent =lowADH 2. Osmoreceptors high osmol. = concentrated blood = high ADH low osmolarity = dilute blood = low ADH |
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How is oxytocin release regulated? |
Positive feedback oxytocin = uterine contraction uterine contraction = more oxytocin more oxytocin = stronger contractions |
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1. How is the thyroid controlled? 2. What are the thyroid's major functions? |
1. TSH = thyroid stimulating hormone release from anterior pituitary 2. T3+T4 = set basal metabolic rate calcitonin = calcium homeostasis |
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1. names of T3 and T4 2. function 3. how is release controlled? 4. where are they synthesized? |
1. T3 = triiodothyronine T4 = Thyroxine 2. causes increased cellular respiration, increase protein and FA synthesis and FA degredation 3. negative feedback 4. from tyrosine in follicular cells of thyroid |
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Causes and effects of: 1. hypothyroidism 2. hyperthyroidism |
1. iodine deficiency or thyroid inflammation = no/less thyroid hormone = lethargy and overweight "hippo" 2. tumor or thyroid overstimulation = too much thyroid hormone = energy + weight loss "hyper" |
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Calcitonin 1. where is it synthesized/released? 2. effects |
1. C-cells/ parafollicular cells of thyroid 2. Calcitonin = decreases blood Ca2+ levels |
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By what mechanism does Calcitonin have it's effects on the blood? |
Goal = remove calcium 1. increase calcium secretion in kidney 2. decrease calcium absorption in gut 3. increase calcium storage in bone |
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PTH 1. where is it synthesizes/excreted 2. function |
PTH = parathyroid hormone 1. parathyroid 2. raises blood calcium raises blood phosphate activates vitamin D |
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What hormone is stimulated when 1. There is high plasma [Ca2+]? 2. there is low plasma [Ca2+] |
1. calcitonin from thyroid 2. PTH fro parathyroid |
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Glucocorticoids 1. What stimulates their release and where are they released from? |
Hypothalamus secrets CRF (corticotropin releasing factor) CRF stimulates anterior pituitary to release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) ACTH stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete glucocorticoids |
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Glucocorticoids 1. major types 2. function |
1. cortisol and cortisone 2. increase [blood glucose] by increasing gluconeogenesis and decreasing protein synthesis decreases inflammation/ immune response |
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Aldosterone 1. function 2. net effect on the blood |
1. goal = increase plasma Na+ via increased renal re-absorption 2. increases blood volume + blood pressure no change in osmolarity |
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Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system summary |
1. decreased blood pressure stimulates baroreceptors to secrete Renin 2. Renin converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I 3. ACE converts angiotensin I --> II. angiotensin I is vasoconstrictive and increases heart rate 4. angiotensin II stimulates adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone 5. aldosterone increases blood volume by increasing Na+ reabsorporption. 6. increased blood volume stops baroreceptors from producing renin |
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What are baroreceptor cells called? |
Juxtaglomerular cells found in kidney and secrete renin |
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What hormones can increase blood pressure and how? |
1. Aldosterone by increasing Na+ reabsorption in nephron thereby increasing blood volume while maintaining osmolarity 2. Angiotensin I by vasoconstriction and increased heart rate |
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Drugs with suffix "-pril" means what? |
-pril = ACE inhibitor treatment for treating high BP |
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What is the function of the adrenal cortex? |
cortex = corticosteroids glucocorticoids = increased plasma glucose mineralocorticoids = increase BP e.g. aldosterone cortical sex hormone = (androgens and estrogens) important for women estrogens |
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Function of adrenal medulla |
remember that is a derivative of the nervous system from neural crest cells makes sypathetic hormones E and NE |
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Pancreas 1. what is the endocrine portion called? 2. types of cells and functions |
1. Islets of Longerhans 2. alpha = glucagon = Increase gluconeogenesis beta = insulin = increase anabolism gama = somatostatin = inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion |
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How can glucagon secretion be stimulated? |
"glucagon levels are high when glucose is gone" 1. low blood glucose 2. cholecystokinin 3. gastrin |
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Type I diabetes mellitus |
autoimmune disease where beta islet cells of pancreas are destroyed |
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What types of cells are there in the thyroid and where are their functions |
Follicular cells = thyroid horomones C-cells = calcitonin |
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ENDOCRINE SYSTEM LIGHTING ROUND |
CHEESE |
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FSH |
PEPTIDE Follicle stimulating hormone GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates FSH release from anterior pituitary. Females = stimulates follicle maturation Males = stimulates spermatogenesis |
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LH |
PEPTIDE Leutinizing hormone GnRH from hypothalamus stimulates FSH release from anterior pituitary Females = stimulates ovulation Males = stimulates testosterone synthesis |
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ACTH |
PEPTIDE Adrenocorticotropic hormone CRF from hypothalamus stimulates it's secretion by anterior pituitary and stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids |
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TSH |
PEPTIDE Thyroid stimulating hormone Secreted by anterior pituitary and stimulates thyroid to secrete T3 (triiodothyonine) and T4 (thyroxine) |
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Prolactin |
PEPTIDE anterior hypothalamus In the absence of PIF (DA), prolactin is recreted by anterior pituitary in order to stimulate mammary glands to produce milk |
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Endorphines |
PEPTIDE anterior pituitary decreases sensitization to pain/ induces euphoria |
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GH |
PEPTIDE Growth Hormone secreted by anterior pituitary stimulates bone and muscle growth raises blood glucose |
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Vasopressin |
AKA ADH PEPTIDE made: hypothalamus secreted: posterior pituitary stimulates water reabsorption in kidneys to increase blood volume and decrease osmolarity |
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Oxytocin |
PEPTIDE made: hypothalamus secreted: posterior pituitary stimulate uterine contractions stimulate milk secretion bonding |
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T3 and T4 |
AMINO-DERIVATIVE T3 = triiodothyronine T4 = thyroxine secreted by FOLLICULAR CELLS OF thyroid in response to TSH from anterior pituitary increases basal metabolic activity |
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TRH |
Thyrotropin releasing hormone -tropic hormone released by hypothalamus stimulates anterior pituitary to secrete TSH high levels of t3/4 = negative feedback |
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Calcitonin |
PEPTIDE secreted by C-cells of thyroid in response to low plasma calcium increases plasma calcium by decreasing nephron reabsorption, decreasing GI absorption, and increasing bone storage |
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PTH |
PEPTIDE parathyroid hormone secreted by parathyroid in response to low plasma calcium or low plasma phasphate increases Ca by increasing nephron reabsorption, activating vitamin D to increase GI absorption, |
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Glucocorticoids |
steroid hormone Secreted by adrenal cortex increases blood sugar by increasing gluconeogenesis, decreases protein synthesis anti-inflammatory |
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Minerlalocorticoids |
Steroid hormone adrenal cortex involved in mineral homeostasis e.g. aldosterone |
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E + NE |
amino-derivative hormones adrenal medulla stimulates sympathetic nervous system increase blood glucose, increase heart rate, dilate bronchi |
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Glucagon |
Peptide hormone secreted by alpha cells of pancreas increases blood glucose and increases gluconeogenesis |
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Insulin |
Peptide hormone secreted by beta cells of pancreas decreases blood glucose increases glycolysis and glycogenosis inceases anabolic processes |
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Somatostatin |
Peptide hormone secerted by gamma cells of pancreas inhibits glucagon and insulin secretion |
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Testosterone |
Steroid hormone secreted by adrenal cortex and testes develops and maintains male reproductive system + secondary sex characteristics |
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Estrogen |
Steroid hormone secreted by ovary and placenta develops and maintains female reproductive system + secondary sex characteristics |
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Progesterone |
Steroid hormone secreted by ovary and placenta Promotes maintenance of endometrium |
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Melatonin |
Peptide hormone secreted by pineal gland circadian rhythms |
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Erythropoeitin |
Peptide secreted by kidney stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes |
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ANP |
Peptide Atrial natriuretic peptide secreted by atria decreases blood pressure by decreasing nephron Na reabsorption --> water excretion |
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Thymosin |
Peptide Secreted by the thymus stimulates T-cell development |
