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195 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Differentiation |
Unspecialised cells become specialised |
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Somatic cell |
Body cells that divide by mitosis |
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Stem cell |
Unspecialised somatic cells that can divide to make copies of themselves and/or differentiate into specialised cells |
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How does a stem cell differentiate into one type of cell rather than another? |
Certain genes are switched on and expressed |
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Name the three components of a nucleotide of DNA. |
1. Deoxyribose sugar 2. Phosphate 3. Base |
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Name the four bases in DNA |
1. Adenine 2. Thymine 3. Cytosine 4. Guanine |
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State the base pairing rule |
A - T C - G |
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What types of bond hold the two DNA strands together? |
Hydrogen |
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Which part of the DNA strand is the 3' end? |
Deoxyribose |
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What is meant by the term anti-parallel in DNA? |
The two sugar-phosphate backbones run in opposite directions |
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What is a chromosome? |
Tightly coiled DNA packaged with proteins |
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Describe the stages involved in DNA replication |
1. DNA is unwound and unzipped 2. Primer attaches to the exposed bases 3. DNA polymerase adds nucleotides 4. Nucleotides added at the 3' end 5. One strand copied continuously, the other in fragments 6. Ligase enzyme joins the fragments together |
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Phenotype |
A protein produced as a result of the expression of genes |
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State three differences between DNA and RNA |
1. DNA has deoxyribose sugar, RNA has ribose sugar 2. DNA is double stranded, RNA is single stranded 2. DNA has thymine, RNA has uracil |
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Name the four main body tissues |
1. Epithelial 2. Connective 3. Muscle 4. Nervous |
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What makes up a ribosome? |
1. rRNA 2. Protein |
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Describe the stages of transcription |
1. RNA polymerase unwinds and unzips DNA 2. RNA nucleotides bind to complementary bases on DNA 3. A-U, C-G 4. RNA polymerase joins RNA nucleotides together 5. Introns removed 6. Exons joined together by splicing 7. Primary transcript formed |
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Describe the stages of translation |
1. mRNA attaches to ribosome 2. mRNA contains codons (3 bases) 3. tRNA attaches to a specific amino acid 4. tRNA contains an anti-codon 5. Anti-codon binds to codon 6. Peptide bond forms between amino acids 7. Start codon begins protein, stop codon ends it
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Multipotent stem cell |
A cell that can differentiate into any cell type within that tissue (eg tissue stem cells) |
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Pluripotent stem cell |
A cell that can differentiate into any cell type (eg embryonic stem cells) |
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Germ line cell |
A cell that gives rise to sperm and egg |
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What two types of cell division do germ line cells carry out? |
1. Mitosis 2. Meiosis |
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Name two therapeutic uses of stem cells |
1. Corneal transplants 2. Skin grafts |
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Why are stem cells used as model cells? |
1. To test drugs on 2. To investigate how diseases develop |
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Tumour |
A mass of abnormal cells |
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If cancer cells fail to attach to each other, they can spread through the body to form... |
Secondary tumours |
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Codon |
Three bases on mRNA (code for a specific amino acid) |
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Codon |
Three bases on mRNA (code for a specific amino acid) |
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Anticodon |
Three bases on tRNA |
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Codon |
Three bases on mRNA (code for a specific amino acid) |
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Anticodon |
Three bases on tRNA |
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Ribosome |
Site of protein synthesis |
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Amino acid |
Building block of a protein |
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Polypeptide |
A protein, made up of a long sequence of amino acids |
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Primary transcript |
mRNA containing both introns and exons |
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Give two examples of post-translational modification |
1. Cutting or combining of polypeptide chains 2. Adding phosphate or carbohydrate groups to the protein |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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Duplication chromosome mutation |
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Translocation chromosome mutation |
The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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Duplication chromosome mutation |
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Translocation chromosome mutation |
The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes |
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Bioinformatics |
The use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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Duplication chromosome mutation |
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Translocation chromosome mutation |
The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes |
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Bioinformatics |
The use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences |
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Systematics |
Compares the human genome with genomes of other species |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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Duplication chromosome mutation |
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome |
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State three ways in which proteins are held in a 3D shape |
1. Peptide bonds 2. Hydrogen bonds 3. Interactions between amino acids |
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Translocation chromosome mutation |
The rearrangement of chromosomal material between two or more chromosomes |
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Bioinformatics |
The use of computer technology to identify DNA sequences |
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Systematics |
Compares the human genome with genomes of other species |
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Describe the process of PCR |
1. DNA heated (to separate strands) 2. DNA cooled (to allow primers to bind) 3. DNA heated (to optimise DNA polymerase which replicates the DNA) |
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Substitution mutation |
Replacing one DNA nucleotide with another |
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Insertion mutation |
Adding a nucleotide to a DNA sequence |
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Deletion mutation |
Taking away a nucleotide from a DNA sequence |
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Missense |
Replacing one amino acid codon with another |
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Nonsense mutation |
Replacing an amino acid codon with a stop codon |
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Splice site mutation |
Creating or destroying the codons for splicing |
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Frame shift mutation |
A mutation that means all codons downstream are out of phase |
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Deletion chromosome mutation |
Loss of a segment of a chromosome |
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Duplication chromosome mutation |
Repeat of a segment of a chromosome |
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DNA probe |
Short, single strands of DNA that detect the presence of specific DNA sequences |
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Anabolic pathway |
A pathway that is biosynthetic (making bigger molecules) and requires energy |
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Anabolic pathway |
A pathway that is biosynthetic (making bigger molecules) and requires energy |
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Catabolic pathway |
A pathway that involves the breakdown of molecules and releases energy |
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Anabolic pathway |
A pathway that is biosynthetic (making bigger molecules) and requires energy |
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Catabolic pathway |
A pathway that involves the breakdown of molecules and releases energy |
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Induced fit |
When a substrate approaches the enzyme, it causes a change in the shape of the active site that allows the substrate to bind |
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Activation energy |
The energy required for an enzyme-catalysed reaction to occur |
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Competitive inhibitor |
Binds to the active site, blocking the substrate from binding |
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Competitive inhibitor |
Binds to the active site, blocking the substrate from binding |
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Non-competitive inhibitor |
Bonds away from the active site but causes a permanent change in the shape of the active site |
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Feedback inhibition |
End product binds to and inhibits an enzyme that catalysed a reaction early in the pathway |
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State two functions of ATP |
1. Providing energy 2. Phosphorylation of molecules |
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What is the end product of glycolysis? |
Pyruvate |
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State two functions of ATP |
1. Providing energy 2. Phosphorylation of molecules |
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What is the end product of glycolysis? |
Pyruvate |
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Name the three stages of aerobic respiration |
1. Glycolysis 2. Citric acid cycle 3. Electron transport chain |
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What happens in the energy investment stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is used up |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step |
Phosphofructokinase |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step |
Phosphofructokinase |
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How is acetyl co-enzyme A produced? |
Pyruvate >> acetyl Acetyl + co-enzyme A >> acetyl co-enzyme A |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step |
Phosphofructokinase |
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How is acetyl co-enzyme A produced? |
Pyruvate >> acetyl Acetyl + co-enzyme A >> acetyl co-enzyme A |
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How is citric acid produced? |
oxaloacetate + acetyl co-enzyme A >> citric acid |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step |
Phosphofructokinase |
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How is acetyl co-enzyme A produced? |
Pyruvate >> acetyl Acetyl + co-enzyme A >> acetyl co-enzyme A |
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How is citric acid produced? |
oxaloacetate + acetyl co-enzyme A >> citric acid |
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Describe what happens during the citric acid cycle |
1. Citric acid is produced 2. ATP is produced 3. Carbon dioxide is released 4. NADH/FADH is produced 5. Oxaloacetate is regenerated |
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What happens in the energy pay-off stage of glycolysis? |
ATP is produced |
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Name an enzyme in glycolysis that produces an intermediate substance in an irreversible step |
Phosphofructokinase |
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How is acetyl co-enzyme A produced? |
Pyruvate >> acetyl Acetyl + co-enzyme A >> acetyl co-enzyme A |
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How is citric acid produced? |
oxaloacetate + acetyl co-enzyme A >> citric acid |
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Describe what happens during the citric acid cycle |
1. Citric acid is produced 2. ATP is produced 3. Carbon dioxide is released 4. NADH/FADH is produced 5. Oxaloacetate is regenerated |
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Name the enzyme that removes hydrogen ions and electrons from molecules |
Dehydrogenase |
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Name the two co-enzymes that pick up hydrogen ions and electrons |
1. NADH 2. FADH2 |
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How is ATP made in the electron transport chain? |
1. High energy electrons are used to pump hydrogen ions across a membrane. 2. The hydrogen ions flow back through the membrane using the protein ATP synthase. 3. TP is synthesised. |
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What is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration? |
Oxygen |
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Name give respiratory substrates |
1. Glucose 2. Starch 3. Glycogen 4. Fat 5. Protein |
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What is meant by 'conservation of resources'? |
ATP is only made when needed |
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What is the function of creatine phosphate? |
It breaks down to release creatine and phosphate that is used to convert ADP to ADP |
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Describe what happens in anaerobic respiration. |
1. Hydrogen from NADH is added to pyruvate to become lactic acid 2. This regenerates NAD which is needed for ATP production |
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Describe what happens in anaerobic respiration. |
1. Hydrogen from NADH is added to pyruvate to become lactic acid 2. This regenerates NAD which is needed for ATP production |
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Which type of muscle fibre is associated with aerobic respiration? |
Slow twitch |
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Describe what happens in anaerobic respiration. |
1. Hydrogen from NADH is added to pyruvate to become lactic acid 2. This regenerates NAD which is needed for ATP production |
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Which type of muscle fibre is associated with aerobic respiration? |
Slow twitch |
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Which type of muscle fibre has lots of mitochondria? |
Slow twitch |
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Which type of muscle fibre does not have a good blood supply? |
Fast twitch |
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Which type of muscle fibre does not have a good blood supply? |
Fast twitch |
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What type of events are fast twitch muscle fibres best for? |
Bursts of activity (eg sprinting, weight lifting) |