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62 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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cell body (soma)
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The Soma or cell body contains the nucleus of cell. The nucleus contains major cytoplasmic organelles that manufacture and
transport proteins and other substances to maintain functioning of neuron and to provide the basis for neurotransmitters The soma is an Afferent structures (grey matter) in that it receives messages from other neurons. |
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Axon
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The axon is an efferent structure (containing white matter) which transmits
messages away from the cell. The axon carries electrical messages and proteins and is often covered by a myelin sheath to enhance conduction |
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dendrite
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Dendrites are affarent (grey matter, receiving info) structures that change in response to input to
facilitate information processing. Dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron contain receptor molecules. The receptor sites on dendrites serve as binding sites for neurotransmitters. Binding causes electrical changes in neuron, which can cause: -change in functioning - change in potential to generate an electrical message |
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synapse
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place where presynaptic neurons release neurotransmitters in response to an electrical message transmitted down the axon
Synapse—space between neurons |
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Myelin sheath
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A myelin sheath can cover the axon to enhance conduction.
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Sensation
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“the elementary process when a stimulus
has excited a receptor and results in a detectable experience in any sensory modality.” (Zillmer & Spiers, 2001) “the product of environmental stimulation prior to its perceptual interpretation” (Coren, Ward, & Enns, 1994 cited in Andrewes) |
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Perception
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The process of ‘knowing;’ depends on
intact sensation.” (Zillmer & Spiers, 2001) “The process by which sensation is analysed for its psychological meaning.” (Andrewes, 2001) Includes both bottom-up and top-down processes |
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anopsia
(as in right or left anopsia) |
blindness in one eye as a
result of disrupted visual pathway prior to the optic chiasm on the same side. |
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Hemianopsia
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Includes: Bitemporal Hemianopsia—blindness in outer visual
field of each eye due to disruption of the visual pathway at the optic chiasm Homonymous hemianopsia—blindness in the left or right visual field of each eye due to disruption of the visual pathway between the optic chiasm and the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus (LGN) or the primary visual cortex in the right or left hemisphere If Right hemisphere affected—left homonymous hemianopsia If Left hemisphere affected—right homonymous hemianopsia |
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blindness in outer visual
field of each eye due to disruption of the visual pathway at the optic chiasm |
Bitemporal Hemianopsia
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blindness in one eye as a
result of disrupted visual pathway prior to the optic chiasm on the same side. |
Right or Left anopsia
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blindness in the left or
right visual field of each eye due to disruption of the visual pathway between the optic chiasm and the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus of the Thalamus (LGN) or the primary visual cortex in the right or left hemisphere |
Homonymous hemianopsia.
If it effects: Right hemisphere, it is called left homonymous hemianopsia Left hemisphere it is called right homonymous hemianopsia |
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Scotoma
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small blind spot in the visual field caused
by a small lesion, an epileptic focus, or migraines of the visual cortex |
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small blind spot in the visual field caused
by a small lesion, an epileptic focus, or migraines of the visual cortex |
scotoma
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Parvocellular visual pathway
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The parvocellular pathway is the what, ventral pathway—
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magnocellular visual pathway
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Magnocellular pathways are the where, dorsal pathways involved in:
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achromatopsia
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What: Achromatopsia is an acquired inability to see
color or reduced depth or strength of color perception due to CNS dysfunction The structures involved in achromatopsia are the fusiform gyrus or V4. |
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visual apperceptive agnosia
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visual apperceptive agnosia represents failure in the
recognition of objects due to abnormal perception, not due to a disorder of sensation The structures involved in visual apperceptive agnosia include bilateral diffuse posterior lesions—carbon monoxide or mercury poisoning, closed head trauma Signs of signs of visual apperceptive agnosia |
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visual associative agnosia
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visual associative agnosia reporesents the inability to
recognize objects or their function in spite of ability to perceive the physical characteristics of the stimulus. The structures involved in visual associative agnosia include: disconnection between visual cortex and knowledge store in left hemisphere with simultaneous disruption of visual information from right hemisphere through splenium of corpus callosum—occlusion of left posterior cerebral artery signs of visual associative agnosia—unable to recognize or express name or function of seen object, with intact ability to |
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color agnosia
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Color agnosia is a specialized subtype of visual associative agnosia in which there is an inability to analyze meaning or association of colors.
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alexia without agraphia
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Alexia without agraphia is a specialized subtype of visual associative agnosia in which there is an inability to associate meaning with visually presented words
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associative prosopagnosia
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associative prosopagnosia is a specialized subtype of visual associative
agnosia in which there is an inability to recognize the identity of familiar faces ( occurs w. bilateral inferior occipital lobe lesion |
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Anton's syndrome
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lack of awareness
of cortical blindness (assoc w. bilateral lesion of visual cortex) |
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Anosoagnosia
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lack of awareness of
deficits (blindness??) |
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cortical deafness
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Cortical deafness (awareness of auditory
problems) and cortical auditory disorder (no awareness) |
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Pure word deafness
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With Pure word deafness:
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Auditory sound agnosia
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Someone with auditory sound agnosia is unable to comprehend meaning of common
environmental sounds. Here are the two types of errors they make: |
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executive functioning
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Executive functions (Andrewes, 2001):
Executive system—plans, organizes, and monitors behavior |
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Describe the difficulties/needs of ppl with executive difficulties.
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Frontal lobes
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Constitute one third of cerebral cortex
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Primary motor area (Precentral Gyrus)
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The primary motor area is part of the frontal lobe.
Function--fine motor movement |
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Premotor area
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The premotor area is a part of the frontal lobe.
Function--complex volitional movement and sensorimotor integration |
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Frontal eye fields
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The frontal eye fields are part of the frontal lobe
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Dorsolateral Prefrontal cortex
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The Dorsolateral Prefrontal cortex is part of the frontal lobe.
Prefrontal—executive system (cognitive) |
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Orbital Prefrontal Cortex
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Orbital Prefrontal Cortex is part of frontal lobe
Functions—SEM -smell discrimination -emotional and behavioral inhibition -motivational regulation and learning |
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Medial Prefrontal Cortex
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The medial prefrontal cortex is part of the frontal lobe.
Medial frontal lobes, Supplementary motor area (SMA), and anterior cingulate gyrus— |
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Discuss info about concept formation and reasoning
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May be included in or discussed separately
from (other?) executive functions. |
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Amygdala
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The amygdala is the central processor of emotion
It analyzes emotional significance of information and receives input from medial nucleus of the thalamus. the inferior colliculus, the polymodal association cortex (temporal lobe) Output goes to -> hypothalamus->pituitary-> adrenal glands in medulla. Lesions of the amygdala produce passivity |
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Describe the assumptions of the deficit measurement approach in neuropsychology, along with the various standards of comparison that may be used (i.e., normative versus individual standards)
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Assumptions of the deficit measurement approach:
1. Identification of deficits assumes some ideal, normal, or prior level of functioning against which the patient’s performance is measured. 2.Given reasonably normal conditions of physical and mental development, there is one performance level that best represents each person’s cognitive abilities and skills generally. Other assumptions: Performance on one cognitive task will be predictive of performance on other tasks (for a healthy person) |
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Describe methods of estimating premorbid intelligence with strengths and limitations of each
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*Still need to figure out the strengths and limitations of each
Estimating premorbid intelligence can be based on three things: 1. Based on demographic and/or other historical data (e.g., age, education, occupation, sex, race) 2. Based on test data |
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Be able to compute Z-scores.
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Z score = (patient’s score – mean score)/ standard deviation
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Neuron
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Components of Neuron:
Afferent structures (grey matter)—receive messages from other neurons |
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Describe the basic impairments in agnosias, with examples of specific agnosias. Give examples of how these agnosias might be tested
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HOW DO YOU TEST AGNOSIAS????
Agnosia refers to the inability to recognize and identify objects or persons despite having knowledge of the characteristics of those objects or persons. People with agnosia may have difficulty recognizing the geometric features of an object or face or may be able to perceive the geometric features but not know what the object is used for or whether a face is familiar or not. Agnosia can be limited to one sensory modality such as vision or hearing. For example, a person may have difficulty in recognizing an object as a cup or identifying a sound as a cough. Agnosia can result from strokes, dementia, or other neurological disorders. It typically results from damage to specific brain areas in the occipital or parietal lobes of the brain. People with agnosia may retain their cognitive abilities in other areas. Examples of agnosias include: visual apperceptive agnosia, auditory sound agnosia, and visual associative agnosia (and it's 3 subtypes: color agnosia, alexia w/out agraphia, associative prosopagnosia) 1. visual apperceptive agnosia—failure in the recognition of objects due to abnormal perception, not due to a disorder of sensation (bilateral diffuse posterior lesions—carbon monoxide or mercury poisoning, closed head trauma signs of visual apperceptive agnosia |
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Describe the relative roles of the right and left hemispheres in global versus local visual processing
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Right temporal lobe—processing the
global (gestalt) aspects of stimuli (human face, emotional expressions) Left temporal lobe—processing the local (detail) aspects of stimuli |
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Describe contributions of the right versus left hemispheres and of the parietal versus frontal lobes in construction tasks
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Construction Requires integration of perceptual (what),
spatial (where), and motor processes |
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Describe the three major axes of brain systems related to neuropsychological performances, related structures, and functions (right-left, anterior-posterior, cortical-subcortical)
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Anterior: Anticipate, select goals, plan, orchestrate, monitor, on-line processing
Posterior: receives, encodes, stores, structure/organize, knowledge base Right: spatially represented info, relationships between pairs, configural aspects of complex info, processing of multiple nodes, intermodal integration, novel info (w/ no existing code) Left: language building blocks, parts of complex materials, temporally processed info, processing of unimodal info,elaboration/use/storage of codable info, execution of discrete motor acts cortical (frontal): regulation, inhibition, selection cortical (posterior): reception, processing Subcortical (Reticular activating system): arousal, alertness, attention Subcortical (Basal Ganglia): motor control/skill, motor activity Subcortical (Limbic system): impulse control, modulation of emotion, social drives Subcortical (thalamus): information transmission, memory formation Mnemonics: Anterior = om soap Posterior= sr. sek left= lc peet right= scrinp Subcortical= R. BLT Subcortical functions = Maam, mis, mai Cortical = F P Cortical functions = sir, pr |
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Describe patterns of contralateral and/or ipsilateral representation for motor, somatosensory, vision, hearing, smell.
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There is lateral organization of voluntary motor and sensory processes.
Things that have Contralateral representation include: |
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Describe the four attentional subsystems as defined by Andrewes, 2001 (arousal, orienting, perceptual attention system, executive attention system). Include their basic functions and the structures most involved.
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The four attentional systems are: arousal system, orienting system, perceptual attention system, and executive attention system.
AROUSAL = DANS RASH Neurotransmitter systems— -Dopamine = motor performance and sustained alertness |
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diffuse axonal injury
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Diffuse axonal injuries (DAI) can occur as a consequence of a TBI.
A DAI results in impaired speed of information transmission and processing DAIs also impair arousal. |
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Attention
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“...the taking possession by the mind, in
clear and vivid form, of one out of what seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought. Focalization, concentration of consciousness are of its essence. It implies withdrawal from some things in order to deal effectively with others” (James cited in Andrewes, p. 140). “...a limited-capacity process that allows the preferential processing of certain sensory or imaged information at the expense of other available stimuli” (Andrewes, 2001, p. 145). The attentional systems are: 1. arousal 2.orienting 3. Executive attention 4. Perceptual attentioni |
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Orientation
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Orientation = Awareness of self in relation to one’s
surroundings Ox3 = orientation to person, time, and place Orientation Requires consistent and reliable integration of attention, perception, and memory Most common impairments with respect to orientation are time and place, which depend upon continuity of awareness and translation of immediate experience into memories that last long enough to maintain awareness of one’s ongoing history Most common brain disorders associated with impaired orientation are: |
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Cerebral Vascular Accident
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The acute aftermath of a CVA is one of the pathologies related to neglect.
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Unilateral neglect
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Unilateral neglect = Impaired attention to side contralateral to lesion
Unilateral neglect is most commonly left neglect as a result of right inferior parietal lobe lesion Unilateral neglect may be visual, somesthetic, auditory, and/or kinetic Unilateral neglect may affect internal imagery as well as attention to external stimuli Unilateral neglect is frequently accompanied by anosognosia Unilateral neglect is related to extinction in the sense that there is a lack of awareness to stimulus when presented with simultaneous bilateral stimulation. This may be a subtle sign of neglect and occur without other signs. |
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Environment-centered neglect
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Environment
centered neglect— inattention to left of scene --don't understand this yet, can refer to class 6 for diagram |
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Object centered neglect
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Object centered
neglect— inattention to left of object (tree) |
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Dorsal simultaneous agnosia
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Dorsal simultaneous agnosia refers to an inability to attend to more than one object at a time (regardless of size) as well as an “inability to interpret complex visual arrays, despite
preserved recognition of single objects” (Coslett &Saffran, 1991, cited in Andrewes, 2001) With dorsal simultaneous agnosia, the perception of location is impaired. The also person experiences difficulty integrating features of objects. With dorsal simultaneous agnosia, there is disconnection or destruction of the dorsal “where/action” visual pathway (bilateral parietal lesions) Dorsal simultaneous agnosia is a disorder of attention, it is not an agnosia. |
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Describe the anatomical/functional subdivisions of the frontal lobes and how damage to each area may impair behavior.
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Frontal lobe = DF POMP
Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex = LM MISC Frontal Eye fields= V VD Primary motor area (aka precentral gyrus) Orbital prefrontal cortex = SEM Medial prefrontal cortex = REP Premotor area For the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex = Learning and retrieval, Maintenance of response set thru self monitoring and working memory, Memory for situational and temporal context, Integration of sensory elements into a coherent whole, Self-integrated selection & organization, Cognitive & Behavioral Flexibility Impairment to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex results in dysexecutive syndrome Frontal eye fields = Voluntary gaze, visual search, directing complex attention Impairment to the frontal eye fields (VAG) results in: volitional eye movements become difficult to control in the contralateral field, Attention, complex version, becomes hard to direct, Guiding eye movements during goal-directed behavior becomes difficult. Primary motor area = fine motor movement Impairment to the primary motor area results in contralateral paresis or incordination Orbital prefrontal cortex = smell discrimination, emotional and behavioral inhibition, motivational regulation and learning Impairment to the orbital prefrontal cortex (DECIDE) results in distractibility, emotional lability, confabulation, impulsivity, difficulties with sustained and divided attention, emotions not appropriate to the situation. Medial Prefrontal cortex = response initiation, environmental responsiveness, prep and direction of learned complex motor movements Impairment to the medial prefrontal cortex results in (A. PAID) Apathy, Passivity, Akinetic syndrome, Impersistence, Dependent on Environment. Premotor area = complex volitional movement and sensorimotor integration Impairment to the premotor area results in difficulties programming complex volitional movement (apraxia), and Inability to make use of sensory info/feedback to coordinate smooth movements. |
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Describe the roles of the main components of the emotional regulation system (amygdala, right hemisphere, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex, hypothalamus, brain stem)
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Amygdala = emotion procesing, analyzing emotional emotional significance of information
Right hemisphere = emotional perception Hippocampus = learning emotional associations; Connections between the amygdala and the hippocampus provide emotional context of memories. (lateral orbital) prefrontal cortex = emotional inhibition and allocation of motivation hypothalamus & brain stem = emotional response. It should be noted that output from the amygdala goes to the hypothalamus, then pituitary, then adrenal glands in the medulla. |
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Describe major characteristics and variations of unilateral neglect. What types and locations of lesions are most likely to cause neglect symptoms.
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Unilateral neglect = Impaired attention to side contralateral to lesion
Unilateral neglect is most commonly left neglect as a result of right inferior parietal lobe lesion Unilateral neglect may be visual, somesthetic, auditory, and/or kinetic Unilateral neglect may affect internal imagery as well as attention to external stimuli Unilateral neglect is frequently accompanied by anosognosia Unilateral neglect is related to extinction in the sense that there is a lack of awareness to stimulus when presented with simultaneous bilateral stimulation. This may be a subtle sign of neglect and occur without other signs. Some variations of neglect: Visual neglect |
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Describe the attention impairments that may be seen with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Give examples of methods that might be used to test these impairments.
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Disorders of attention with TBI :
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Describe abilities included in executive functions, giving examples of how these skills may be seen in everyday activities and of how they may be tested neuropsychologically
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Executive functions
(Andrewes, 2001; Luria, 1973; Stuss & Benson, 1984) Executive system—plans, organizes, and monitors behavior |
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Discuss the major divisions of the nervous system, as well as their components.
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Peripheral Nervous System—
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