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104 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Actor–observer bias
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Social Bias - tendency for explanations of other individuals' behaviors to overemphasize the influence of their personality and underemphasize the influence of their situation (opposite for self).
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Ambiguity effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to avoid options for which missing information makes the probability seem "unknown."
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Anchoring
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the common human tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on one trait or piece of information when making decisions.
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Anchoring effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to rely too heavily, or "anchor," on a past reference or on one trait or piece of information when making decisions (also called "insufficient adjustment").
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Attentional bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to neglect relevant data when making judgments of a correlation or association.
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Authority bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to value an ambiguous stimulus (e.g., an art performance) according to the opinion of someone who is seen as an authority on the topic.
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Availability cascade
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Probability / Belief - a self-reinforcing process in which a collective belief gains more and more plausibility through its increasing repetition in public discourse.
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Availability heuristic
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Probability / Belief - estimating what is more likely by what is more available in memory, which is biased toward vivid, unusual, or emotionally charged examples.
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Bandwagon effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to do (or believe) things because many other people do (or believe) the same. Related to groupthink and herd behavior.
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Base rate fallacy
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to ignore available statistical data in favor of particulars.
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Belief bias
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Probability / Belief - an effect where someone's evaluation of the logical strength of an argument is biased by the believability of the conclusion.
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Bias blind spot
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to see oneself as less biased than other people.[2]
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Bystander effect
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Social Biases - The tendency to not offer help in an emergency situation when other people are present.
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Capability bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to believe that the closer average performance is to a target, the tighter the distribution of the data set.
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Choice-supportive bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to remember one's choices as better than they actually were.
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Clustering illusion
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to see patterns where actually none exist.
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Confirmation bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions.
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Congruence bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to test hypotheses exclusively through direct testing, in contrast to tests of possible alternative hypotheses.
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Conjunction fallacy
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to assume that specific conditions are more probable than general ones.
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Consistency bias
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Memory Errors - incorrectly remembering one's past attitudes and behavior as resembling present attitudes and behavior.
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Contrast effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the enhancement or diminishing of a weight or other measurement when compared with a recently observed contrasting object.
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Cryptomnesia
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Memory Errors - a form of misattribution where a memory is mistaken for imagination.
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Denomination effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to spend more money when it is denominated in small amounts (e.g. coins) rather than large amounts (e.g. bills).[3]
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Disposition effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to sell assets that have increased in value but hold assets that have decreased in value.
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Disregard of: Regression toward the mean
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to expect extreme performance to continue.
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Distinction bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to view two options as more dissimilar when evaluating them simultaneously than when evaluating them separately.[4]
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Dunning–Kruger effect / Illusory superiority
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Social Biases - a two-fold bias. Lack of metacognitive ability deludes people, who overrate their capabilities. Also, skilled people underrate their own abilities.
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Egocentric bias
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Memory Errors - recalling the past in a self-serving manner, e.g. remembering one's exam grades as being better than they were, or remembering a caught fish as being bigger than it was.
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Egocentric bias
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Social Biases - occurs when people claim more responsibility for themselves for the results of a joint action than an outside observer would.
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Endowment effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - "the fact that people often demand much more to give up an object than they would be willing to pay to acquire it".[5]
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Experimenter's / Expectation bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency for experimenters to believe, certify, and publish data that agree with their expectations for the outcome of an experiment (opposite for conflicting data).
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Extraordinarity bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to value an object more than others in the same category as a result of an extraordinarity of that object that does not, in itself, change the value.[citation needed]
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False consensus effect
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Social Biases - the tendency for people to overestimate the degree to which others agree with them.
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False memory
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Memory Errors - confusion of imagination with memory, or the confusion of true memories with false memories.
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Focusing effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to place too much importance on one aspect of an event; causes error in accurately predicting the utility of a future outcome.
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Forer effect / Barnum effect
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Social Biases - the tendency to give high accuracy ratings to descriptions of their personality that supposedly are tailored specifically for them, but are in fact vague and general (e.g. horoscopes).
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Framing
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - using an approach or description of the situation or issue that is too narrow. Also framing effect
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Fundamental attribution error
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Social Biases - the tendency for people to over-emphasize personality-based explanations for behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing the role and power of situational influences on the same behavior.
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Gambler's fallacy
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to think that future probabilities are altered by past events, when in reality they are unchanged. Results from an erroneous conceptualization of the Law of large numbers.
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Halo effect
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Social Biases - the tendency for a person's positive or negative traits to "spill over" from one area of their personality to another in others' perceptions of them (see also physical attractiveness stereotype).
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Hawthorne effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to perform or perceive differently when one knows they are being observed.
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Herd instinct
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Social Biases - common tendency to adopt the opinions and follow the behaviors of the majority to feel safer and to avoid conflict.
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Hindsight bias
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Memory Errors - filtering memory of past events through present knowledge, so that those events look more predictable than they actually were; also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along effect."
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Hindsight bias
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Probability / Belief - sometimes called the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, the tendency to see past events as being predictable.
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Hyperbolic discounting
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency for people to have a stronger preference for more immediate payoffs relative to later payoffs, where the tendency increases the closer to the present both payoffs are.
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Illusion of asymmetric insight
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Social Biases - people perceive their knowledge of their peers to surpass their peers' knowledge of them.
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Illusion of control
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to believe that outcomes can be controlled, or at least influenced, when they clearly cannot.
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Illusion of transparency
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Social Biases - people overestimate others' ability to know them, and they also overestimate their ability to know others.
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Illusory correlation
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Probability / Belief - beliefs that inaccurately suppose a relationship between a certain type of action and an effect.[11]
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Impact bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to overestimate the length or the intensity of the impact of future feeling states.
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Information bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to seek information even when it cannot affect action.
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Ingroup bias
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Social Biases - the tendency for people to give preferential treatment to others they perceive to be members of their own groups.
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Interloper effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to value third party consultation as objective, confirming, and without motive..
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Irrational escalation
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the phenomenon where people justify increased investment in a decision, based on the cumulative prior investment, despite new evidence suggesting that the decision was probably wrong.
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Just-world phenomenon
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to rationalize an inexplicable injustice by searching for things that the victim might have done to deserve it.
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Just-world phenomenon
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Social Biases - the tendency for people to believe that the world is just and therefore people "get what they deserve."
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Loss aversion
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - "the disutility of giving up an object is greater than the utility associated with acquiring it".[7] (see also Sunk cost effects and Endowment effect).
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Mere exposure effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to express undue liking for things merely because of familiarity with them.
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Money illusion
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to concentrate on the nominal (face value) of money rather than its value in terms of purchasing power.
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Moral credential effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency of a track record of non-prejudice to increase subsequent prejudice.
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Need for Closure
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the need to reach a verdict in important matters; to have an answer and to escape the feeling of doubt and uncertainty.
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Negativity bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to pay more attention and give more weight to negative than positive experiences or other kinds of information.
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Neglect of prior base rates effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to neglect known odds when reevaluating odds in light of weak evidence.
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Neglect of probability
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to completely disregard probability when making a decision under uncertainty.
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Normalcy bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the refusal to plan for, or react to, a disaster which has never happened before.
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Observer-expectancy effect
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Probability / Belief - when a researcher expects a given result and therefore unconsciously manipulates an experiment or misinterprets data in order to find it (see also subject-expectancy effect).
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Omission bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to judge harmful actions as worse, or less moral, than equally harmful omissions (inactions).
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Optimism bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to be over-optimistic about the outcome of planned actions.
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Ostrich effect
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Probability / Belief - ignoring an obvious (negative) situation.
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Outcome bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to judge a decision by its eventual outcome instead of based on the quality of the decision at the time it was made.
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Outgroup homogeneity bias
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Social Biases - individuals see members of their own group as being relatively more varied than members of other groups.
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Overconfidence effect
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Probability / Belief - excessive confidence in one's own answers to questions. For example, for certain types of questions, answers that people rate as "99% certain" turn out to be wrong 40% of the time.[12][13]
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Pareidolia
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Probability / Belief - a vague and random stimulus (often an image or sound) is perceived as significant, e.g., seeing images of animals or faces in clouds.
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Pessimism bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to be over-pessimistic about the outcome of planned actions.
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Planning fallacy
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to underestimate task-completion times.
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Positive outcome bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to overestimate the probability of good things happening to them (see also wishful thinking, optimism bias, and valence effect).
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Post-purchase rationalization
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to persuade oneself through rational argument that a purchase was a good value.
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Primacy effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to weigh initial events more than subsequent events.
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Projection bias
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Social Biases - the tendency to unconsciously assume that others (or one's future selves) share one's current emotional states, thoughts and values.[14]
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Pseudocertainty effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to make risk-averse choices if the expected outcome is positive, but make risk-seeking choices to avoid negative outcomes.
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Reactance
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the urge to do the opposite of what someone wants you to do out of a need to resist a perceived attempt to constrain your freedom of choice.
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Recency effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events (see also peak-end rule).
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Reminiscence bump
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Memory Errors - the effect that people tend to recall more personal events from adolescence and early adulthood than from other lifetime periods.
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Restraint bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to overestimate one's ability to show restraint in the face of temptation.
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Rosy retrospection
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Memory Errors - the tendency to rate past events more positively than they had actually rated them when the event occurred.
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Selective perception
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency for expectations to affect perception.
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Self-fulfilling prophecy / behavioral confirmation
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Social Biases - the tendency to engage in behaviors that elicit results which will (consciously or not) confirm existing attitudes.[15]
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Self-serving bias
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Social Biases - the tendency to claim more responsibility for successes than failures. Also a tendency for people to evaluate ambiguous information in a way beneficial to their interests.
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Self-serving bias
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Memory Errors - perceiving oneself responsible for desirable outcomes but not responsible for undesirable ones.
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Semmelweis reflex
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to reject new evidence that contradicts an established paradigm.[9]
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Status quo bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency to like things to stay relatively the same (see also loss aversion, endowment effect, and system justification).[10]
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Stereotyping
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Probability / Belief - expecting a member of a group to have certain characteristics without having actual information about that individual.
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Subadditivity effect
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to judge probability of the whole to be less than the probabilities of the parts.
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Subjective validation
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Probability / Belief - perception that something is true if a subject's belief demands it to be true. Also assigns perceived connections between coincidences.
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Suggestibility
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Memory Errors - a form of misattribution where ideas suggested by a questioner are mistaken for memory.
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Survivorship bias
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Probability / Belief - the tendency to concentrate on the people or things that "survived" some process and ignoring those that didn't, or arguing that a strategy is effective given the winners.
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System justification
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Social Biases - the tendency to defend and bolster the status quo. Existing social, economic, and political arrangements tend to be preferred, and alternatives disparaged.
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Telescoping effect
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Memory Errors - the effect that recent events appear to have occurred more remotely and remote events appear to have occurred more recently.
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Trait ascription bias
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Social Biases - the tendency for people to view themselves as relatively variable in terms of personality, behavior and mood while viewing others as much more predictable.
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Ultimate attribution error
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Social Biases - similar to the fundamental attribution error, in this error a person is likely to make an internal attribution to an entire group instead of the individuals within the group.
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Von Restorff effect
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the tendency for an item that "stands out like a sore thumb" to be more likely to be remembered than other items.
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Well travelled road effect
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Probability / Belief - underestimation of the duration taken to traverse oft-traveled routes and over-estimate the duration taken to traverse less familiar routes.
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Wishful thinking
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - the formation of beliefs and the making of decisions according to what is pleasing to imagine instead of by appeal to evidence or rationality.
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Zero-risk bias
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Decision-Making / Behavioral - preference for reducing a small risk to zero over a greater reduction in a larger risk.
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