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Personality:
Relatively stable set of psychological characteristics that influence a person's feelings, thoughts and behaviour.
What are three traits of personality?
1. It is a personal style of dealing with the world.
2. It is determined by genetic per-disposition and long-term learning history.
3. Can change through adult learning experience.
What are the "big five" personalities (OCEAN personalities)?
1. Openness to experience.
2. Conscientiousness.
3. Extraversion.
4. Agreeableness.
5. Neuroticism (Emotional stability)
What are examples of the opposite ends of openness to experience?
High openness to experience: Curious, Original
Low openness to experience: Dull, Unimaginative
What are examples of the opposite ends of conscientiousness?
High conscientiousness: Dependable, Responsible
Low conscientiousness: Careless, Impulsive
What are examples of the opposite ends of extraversion?
High extraversion: Sociable, Talkative
Low extraversion: Withdrawn, Shy
What are examples of the opposite ends of agreeableness?
High agreeableness: Tolerant, Cooperative
Low agreeableness: Cold, Rude
What are examples of the opposite ends of neroticism (emotional stability)?
High emotional stability: Stable, Confident
Low emotional stability (neuroticism): Anxious, Depressed
What are the three approaches to organizational behaviour?
1. Dispositional approach.
2. Situational approach.
3. Interactionist approach.
What is the dispositional approach?
People have traits that influene their attitudes/behaviours at work - research findings are inconsistent in support of traits influence on behaviour/performance.
What is the situational approach?
Factors in the work environment influence attitudes/behaviour.
What is the interactionist Approach?
Organizational behaviour is a function of both disposition and situation. It is the most accepted approach. Personality has the most impact in weak situations. There is no one "best ersonality. Right person in the right job to create the company "fit".
What is a "weak" situation?
When it is not always clear how a person should behave, when a persons personality has the most impact. There are loosely defined roles, few rules, and weak reward and punishment contingencies.
What is a "strong" situation?
Have more defined roles, rules, and contingencies, where personalities tend to have less impact.
What is self-monitoring? Give examples of high and low self-monitoring.
The ability to observe and control how you behave in social settings.
High: Concerned about how people perceive them and change their behaviour accordingly.
Low: Unconcerned with how others view their actions, more likely to act consistently.
What is self-esteem? Give examples of high and low self-esteem.
The degree to which a person has a positive self-evaluation of themselves.
High: Confidence, Optimism. Too high: Narcissism.
Low: Negative view of life, mistrust in others. Too low: Depression.
What is a locus of control?
A set of beliefs about whether one's behaviour is controlled mainly by internal or external forces.
What is learning?
When practice or experience leads to a relatively permanent change in behaviour potential.
Practical skills:
Jobs or task specific skills, knowledge, and technical competence.
Intrapersonal skills:
Problem solving, critical thinking, risk taking.
Interpersonal skills:
Interacting effectively with other people (clients, subordinates, peers, boss, suppliers...), communication, teamwork, conflict resolution.
Cultural awareness:
Social norms and roles, understanding company goals, business operations.
In Skinner's Operant Learning Theory, what is reinforcement?
The process by which stimuli strengthen behaviours.
In Skinner's Operant Learning Theory, what is a reinforcer?
A stimulus that follows some behavior and increases of maintains the probability that the behaviour will be enacted again in the future.
What is positive reinforcement?
The application or addition of a stimulus that increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour.
Positive reinforcers tend to be pleasant (e.g. praise, money).
What is a negative reinforcement?
The removal of a stimulus that, in turn, increases or maintains the probability of some behaviour. Negative reinforcers tend to be unpleasant (e.g. nagging, threats).
What are three organizational errors involving reinforcement?
1. Confusing rewards with reinforcers.
- Fails because it's not made contingent on specific, desired, organizational behaviour.
2. Neglecting diversity in preferences for reinforcers.
- Different people require different rewards.
3. Neglecting important sources of reinforcement.
- Could be administered by co-workers.
- Feedback on performance.
- Recognition.
What are some strategies for reinforcement?
For fast acquisition of the desired response the reinforcement needs to be continuous and immediate.
- Ex. Problem employees, emergency training, unsafe behaviour.
For persistent behaviour reinforcement should be applied under conditions of partial and delayed reinforcement.
What are the two strategies that can reduce the probability of learned behaviour?
1. Extinction
2. Punishment
What is extinction?
The gradual dissipation of behaviour following the termination of reinforcement. It is a good idea to deal with the supporters of the contrary behaviour. It works best when coupled with reinforcement of desired substitute behaviour.
What is punishment?
The application of an aversive stimuli following some behaviour designed to decrease the probability of that behaviour.
Punishment only ____________ suppresses the unwanted behaviour.
Temporarily
How is punishment used effectively? (7 aspects)
1. Punishment needs to happen immediately.
2. Do not reward unwanted behaviour before or after punishment.
3. Do not inadvertently punish desirable behaviour (reducing budgets due to improved efficiency).
4. Avoid punishing in front of others.
5. Make sure the punishment is truly aversive.
6. Needs to provide acceptable behaviour to replace current behaviour.
7. Provokes a strong emotional response. Need to ensure manager's emotions are under control.
Bandura's Social Learning Theory consists of what three elements?
1. Self-regulation
2. Modeling (vicarious learning)
3. Self-efficacy
What is modeling?
The process of imitating the behaviour of others. The occurrence of behaviour can therefore be increased without the use of reinforcements.
What helps modeling to be effective?
1. Attractive, credible, competent, high-status models.
2. Vivid behaviour.
3. The model being positively reinforced.
What is self-efficacy?
Beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task. The feeling that you can reproduce the behaviour of the model (if I try I can). It is a key factor in training and it can be changed in response to different sources of information (experience, verbal persuasion)
What is self-regulation?
- The use of learning principals to manage one's own behaviour.
- Observing one's own behavior.
- Comparing behaviour to a standard.
- Rewarding oneself when a standard is met/beaten.
What is perception?
The process of receiving information from our senses and interpreting it to provide order and meaning to the environment.
What are the three elements of perception?
1. Perceiver.
2. Situation.
3. Target.
What affects the perceiver?
1. Limits of the senses.
2. Past experience leads to expectations.
3. Interests, values and needs can lead to focusing on certain pieces of information while ignoring others.
4. Emotions colour perceptions.
What impact does situation have on perception?
It can influence whether you perceive the target's behaviour as appropriate or not. It can blur the characteristics of the target, or make some of them more salient.
What is the consequence of ambiguous targets?
They are more susceptible to interpretation and distortion. The perceiver tries to resolve ambiguities (fill in the gaps).
What is perceptual defense?
The tendency for the perceptual system to defend the perceiver against unpleasant emotions (see/hear what you want to see/hear).
What is Bruner's Model of Perceptual Process?
When a receiver encounters an unfamiliar target, the perceiver looks for informational cues contained in the target and the situation surrounding it.
What are the three elements of Bruner's Model of Perceptual Process?
1. Selectivity: Retain cues that are consistent with one's expectations, needs, and mood, and reject cues that are inconsistent.
2. Consistency: Select, ignore, and distort cues so that the retained cues fit together to form a consistent image of the target.
3. Constancy: Perceive a target in the same way over time or across situations, even in light of contradictory cues.
What are the five perceptual biases?
1. Primacy and recency effects: Relying too much on the first cues or on the most recent cues.

2. Implicit Personality Theories: Beliefs that certain traits go together.
3. (Middle) Central traits: Relying on information about the person that is most interesting to you.
4. Projection: Assuming that others are or think like you.
5. Stereotyping: Generalizations about people in a social category, ignoring variations in that group.
What is attribution theory?
The process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people's behaviour.
What are the two types of attributions under attribution theory?
1. Disposition attributions: Explanations for behaviour based actor's personalities or intellect, e.g. lazy, intelligent.
2. Situational attributions: Explanations for behaviour based on an actor's external situation or environment, e.g. bad luck, poor whether
What are the three types of attribution cues?
1. Consistency cues: Attribution cues that reflect how consistently a person engages in some behaviour over time.
2. Consensus cues: Attribution cues that reflect how a person's behaviour compares with that of others.
3. Distinctiveness Cues: Attribution cues that reflect the extent to which a person engages in some behaviour across a variety of situations.
What are the three types of attribution bias?
1. Fundamental Attribution Error.
2. Actor-Observer Effect.
3. Self-serving Bias.
What is the fundamental attribution error?
Tendency to overemphasize dispositional causes for behaviour at the expense of situational explanations when judging the behaviour of others.
What is the actor-observer effect?
Tendency for actors and observers to focus on different causes for behaviour.
- Actors make more situational attributions.
- Observers make more dispositional attributions.
What is the self-serving bias?
Tendency to take credit for successes and to deny responsibilities for failures. This bias tends to overcome the "actor-observer" when success is the result of some behaviour.
What are some of the more common stereotype groupings?
Racial/ethnic, gender, age, sexual orientation, handicaps.
What is the self-fulfilling prophecy?
People have an expectation about what another person is like, which influences how they act toward that person, which causes the person to act in ways consistent with your beliefs.
What is the stereotype threat?
People in minority groups can be afraid that people will interpret their behaviour according to a stereotype and their anxiety leads them to act that way (i.e. under-perform in a math exam).
What are values?
A broad tendency to prefer certain states of affairs over others.
Where:
Preference - emotional and motivational, and
Broad tendency - general emotional orientations that do not predict behaviour in specific situations.
Who are values primarily reinforced by?
Parents, teachers and religious leaders.
What are the four generational groups?
1. Traditionalists (1922-1945): Hard working, meticulous, frugal, loyal, respect authority.
2. Baby boomers (1946-1964): revolutionary, optimistic, materialistic, democratic.
3. Generation X (1965-1980): Independent, skeptical, defy authority, creative.
4. Generation Y / Millenials (1981-now): Multi-taskers, technological, want challenge.
What is the cause of 16-40% of failed business negotiations and foreign assignments?
A lack of cultural understanding?
What are the five main types of cultural differences in values (Hofstede's cultural value dimensions)?
1. Power Distance.
2. Uncertainty avoidance.
3. Masculinity vs femininity.
4. Individualism vs collectivism.
5. Long-term vs short-term orientation
What is power distance?
The degree in which your superiors are accessible, how you address people, how forthcoming you are with superiors, and the acceptance of having someone superior to you.
What is uncertainty avoidance?
1. Stressing rules and regulation vs. liberation.
2. Conformity is valued (to remove outliers).
3. Security (lawful order) is valued (to protect from uncertainty).
4. Experimenting is not valued.
What are the distinctions between masculinity and femininity?
1. Dominance of men (assertive and competitive) vs equality (modest and caring).
2. Strict gender roles (men work, women raise kids) vs. access to all careers for women.
3. Stress economic performance vs social welfare/quality of life.
What are the distinctions between individualism vs. collectivism?
1. Stress independence (loose ties) vs interdependence (tight ties).
2. Individuals live alone vs live with extended family.
3. Stress individual initiative vs loyalty to the clan.
4. Stress privacy vs sharing.
5. Stress individual achievement vs uniformity.
What is an attitude?
A fairly stable evaluation tendency to respond consistently to some specific object, situation, person or category of people.
- Attitudes lead to behaviours.
- Can change over time with new experiences.
- More specific and evaluative than values.
_________ + _________ => __________ => __________
Beliefs + Values => Attitude => Behaviour
How do you change a behaviour?
A change in belief and/or value leads to a change in attitude which leads to a change in behaviour.
What is job satisfaction?
A collection of attitudes people have about their job.
What is facet theory?
Looks at a person's satisfaction for different facets of a job, and adds them up to get total satisfaction.
Facets include the work itself, supervision, colleagues, pay, working conditions, advancement, etc.
What are the four most satisfying qualities of work?
1. Mentally challenging work: allows you t use your skills/abilities, autonomy/responsibility, with good feedback.
2. Adequate pay: Fair for the work done, that fulfills your living needs. Also includes job security.
3. Career advancement: leads to more money, more prestige, more challenge.
4. People: human/fair/competent manager, friendly co-workers, pleasant clients.
What is discrepancy theory?
The discrepancy between desired (valued) job outcomes and perception of job outcomes obtained.
- Is this important to me?
- Am I getting as much as I want of it?
What are the three types of fairness?
1. Distributive fairness: outcomes are perceived as fair.
2. Procedural fairness: The process that led to receiving those outcomes is perceived as fair. e.g. performance evaluations.
3. Interactional fairness: The communication regarding outcomes is perceived as respectful and informative.
What is Equity Theory?
Job satisfaction stems from a comparison of the inputs one invests in a job and the outcomes one receives in comparison with the inputs and outcomes of another person or group.
- Objective levels of input/outcome are not important, it's people's perceptions that count.
Who qualifies as a referent other?
A co-worker doing similar work, yourself across times or jobs, worker in another company doing similar work, etc.
What are five ways one can restore equity?
1. Change your inputs or outcomes.
2. Change referent inputs or outcomes.
3. Change "perception" of inputs and outcomes.
4. Change the referent.
5. Leave the job.
How do you make decisions procedurally fair?
1. Consistent procedures across time and people.
2. Use of "objective criteria" or accurate information in performance evaluation.
3. Participation and voice (Two-way communication, and appeals process)
4. Inform employees: access to information, explain decisions.
How do you implement successful interactional fairness?
1. Be sincere, polite, and treat employees with dignity.
2. Be candid, truthful, timely and thorough.
- This can to some extent offset negative effects of distributive unfairness.
What are the three types of organizational commitment?
1. Affective commitment: emotional, enjoyment, identification with organization.
2. Normative commitment: obligation, organization has invested in you.
3. Continuance commitment: fear-based, cons outweigh pros.
What are the consequences of job satisfaction?
- Mental health
- General life satisfaction
- Absence
- Turnover
- Performance
- Organizational citizenship behaviour
- Customer satisfaction
- Profit
What is the correlation between satisfaction and performance?
There is a correlation of 0.30, so satisfaction accounts for 10% of variance in performance.
What is Organizational Citizenship Behaviour?
Voluntary, informal behaviour that is not evaluated by the organization, but that contributes to organizational effectiveness and reduced turnover. E.g. Helping a co-worker finish a project.
What are the three aspects of motivation?
1. Direction: Which behaviours does a person choose to perform in an organization?
2. Intensity: how hard does a person work to perform a chosen behaviour?
3. Duration: When faced with obstacles how hard does a person keep trying to perform a chosen behaviour successfully.
What are the manifestations of motivation?
1. Latency: time during which a response is delayed following a stimulus. Quick reactions indicate more motivation.
2. Persistence: Time between initiation and termination of behaviour. Longer periods indicate more motivation
3. Intensity: amplitude of response to stimulus. High amplitudes more motivation.
4. Response probability: number of occasions a response occurs per number of opportunities.
5. Non-verbal behaviour: facial expressions, posture, gestures.
6. Physiology: Cardiovascular activity, ocular activity, etc.
What are the problems with asking people to self-report what motivates them?
1. Honesty
2. Awareness
3. Memory
4. Verbal skills
5. Intention vs behaviour
What are the four motivation theories?
1. Self-determination theory
2. Motives (needs) Theory (McClelland)
3. Expectancy Theory (Vroom)
4. Goal Setting Theory (Locke & Latham)
GEMS
What is intrinsic motivation?
Doing an activity for its own sake because people find the activity itself to interesting or fun.
What is extrinsic motivation?
Doing an activity in order to obtain desired outcome such as a reward of the avoidance of punishment. Ex. Money, surveillance, evaluation, deadline, threat.
Not all extrinsic motivation is bad, there are two varieties __________ and __________.
Controlled and autonomous.
What is controlled extrinsic motivation?
Doing something for external reward or avoidance or punishment; Doing something to maintain self-worth or out of ego-involvement.
Ex. Because others put pressure on me to do so, because I feel ashamed if I did not do it.
What is autonomous extrinsic motivation?
Doing something because it is personally valued. Ex. Because the job is personally meaningful to me, because I enjoy this work very much.
What is internalization?
Taking in values and goals as your own, so they become self-regulated.
Autonomous motivation leads to:
1. Better performance, especially for creative work.
2. Higher engagement, persistence, commitment, retention, and adaptation to change.
3. More knowledge sharing and collaboration.
4. Less stress and higher well-being.
What are the four reasons people put effort into a job?
1. External Regulation: Because others will appreciated me more. To avoid losing financial benefits if I don't put in enough effort.
2. Introjected Regulation: Because it makes me feel proud of myself. Because otherwise I will feel ashamed of myself.
3. Identified Regulation: Because what I do in this job has a lot of personal meaning to me.
4. Intrinsic motivation: Because I enjoy this work.
EIII
What are the two tenants of McClelland's Theory of Needs?
1. Needs are learned early in life.
2. People can have different needs.
Under McClelland's Theory of Needs what are the three different types of need?
1. Need for Achievement.
2. Need for Power.
3. Need for Affiliation.
What are similarities among those with a high need for achievement?
- Actively pursues goals.
- Learn quickly.
- Physiological arousal when concentrating.
- Persistent.
- Pursue optimal challenge.
- Prefer to be autonomous.
- Prefer to work with experts rather than friends.
- Like to get immediate feedback.
- Attribute success to ability, not luck.
- Like blue and green.
What are similarities among those with a high need for power?
- Risk takers.
- Like competition.
- Gives unsolicited help, assistance, or advice.
- Try to influence, persuade, convince, and bribe others.
- Talk a lot.
- High involvement in social events and committees.
- Prefer to be in groups that intimate.
- Good leaders, managers, and executives.
- Concerned with reputation and standing.
- Personal appearance is important.
- Described as sociable and popular.
- Likes red and black.
What are similarities among those with a high need for affiliation?
- Likes to be on equal footing with others.
- Concerned with others' feelings.
- Afraid of rejection.
- Conforms to standards.
- Learn social networks fast.
- Spend a lot of time interacting with others.
- Prefer to work with friends that with experts.
- No more popular or liked than others.
- Likes yellow.
What is the Expectancy Theory?
Motivation is determined by the outcomes that people expect to get as a result of their actions.
What is expectancy?
The probability that one will be able to behave in a way that will lead to desired level of performance.
"I can do it if I try."
What is instrumentality?
The probability that a particular performance will be followed by a particular outcome.
"I can get it if I do it."
What is valence?
The expected value of outcomes, or the extent to which they are attractive or unattractive to you.
Positive valence = approach the outcome
Negative valence = avoid the outcome
Effort, (______), Performance, (______), Outcome (______).
Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence.
What is a goal?
A purpose or intention that helps direct attention and helps define the actions to be taken. (Goal setting is the process of choosing goals to pursue and how to pursue them).
How do goals affect motivation?
1. By directing employees' attention and action towards goal-relevant activities.
2. Be encouraging higher levels of effort.
3. By encouraging the development of action plans.
4. By causing persistence in the face of difficulty.
When will specific or difficult goals not lead to higher motivation and performance?
1. When employees lack the skills and abilities needed to perform at a high level.
2. When employees are given complicated and difficult tasks that require all of their attention and require a considerable amount of learning.
3. When employees need to be creative.
What are four reasons/situations when money is a good motivator?
1. It is effective for those with strong extrinsic / hygiene needs.
2. It can fulfill intrinsic motivations needs as well through feelings of prestige and indication of one's competence.
3. Expectancy theory: as money is (typically) highly valent, given its ability to satisfy a variety of needs, it should be a good motivator when linked to performance.
4. Research supports pay being one of the most effective motivators.
What is job design?
- Linking specific tasks to specific jobs.
- Deciding what techniques, equipment, and procedures should be used to perform those tasks.
- Job Design may increase motivation and encourage good performance.
What were aspects of early approaches to job design?
1. Scientific management
2. Job enlargement
3. Job enrichment
What is scientific management?
Created out of the early industrial revolution and a need for division of labour, it is a set of rules and practices stressing job simplification and specialization.
There is "one best way" to perform any job.
What are the negative effects of scientific management?
1. Decrease in total compensation.
2. Decrease in job satisfaction.
3. Loss of meaning of one's work.
4. Loss of control over one's tasks.
5. No chance to learn anything.
What are the five core job characteristics according to Hackman and Oldham's Job Characteristic Model?
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity (being involved from beginning to end)
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback from Job
What are ways to redesign jobs to increase motivating potential score (MPS)?
1. Combine tasks so that an employee is responsible for work from beginning to end.
2. Allow employees to interact with customers or clients
3. Vertically load jobs to give employees more control and higher levels of responsibility.
4. Open feedback channels.
What are the outcomes of job redesign?
1. Higher intrinsic motivation.
2. Increased job performance.
3. Higher job satisfaction.
4. Lower absenteeism and turnover.
What are potential problems with job enrichment?
1. Poor diagnosis
2. Lack of desire or skill
3. Creates a demand for rewards
4. Union resistance
5. Supervisory resistance
What are the steps of management by objectives (MbO)?
1. Organizational objectives are developed by top management.
2. Org. ob. are translated into behavioural objectives for each individual.
3. Done by each manager participatively with the subordinate.
4. They are time-specific (deadline) with measurable results.
5. Periodic meetings to review progress and take corrective measures.
What are variations of alternative work schedules.
1. Flextime: Core times and flexible bancs.
2. Compressed work week: 4x10 hours
3. Job sharing: 2 people sharing one 40 hour job.
4. Work sharing: all staff take time/pay cut to avoid layoffs.
5. Telecommuting: working from home.