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120 Cards in this Set
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crime displacement
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negative impact of crime prevention
Represents a change in crime due to the preventive actions of the individual or society. -Lab shift of crime from one place to another crime spillover |
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diffusion of benefits
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positive impact of crime prevention
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forms of displacement
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territorial, temporal, tactical, target, functional, perpetrator
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territorial
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movement of crime from one area to another, typically contiguous
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temporal
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a shift in offending from one time to a different time, such as from day to night
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tactical
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changing the methods used in the commission of a crime
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target
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choosing a different victim within the same area
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functional
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the offender stops committing one offense and shifts to another
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perpetrator
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one offender ceases activity only to be replaced by another offender
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displacement assumptions
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crime is inelastic
mobility on the part of the offender level of volition held by the potential offender (Rational Choice Theory) Alternative targets and choices are available to the offender |
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assessing displacement
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all forms of displacement should be open to examination
each crime/problem being targeted by the preventive initiative should be examined in detail to answer a number of questions who are the likely offenders where are the offenses taking place how are the crimes being committed where are they occurring what purpose does the crime serve |
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Barr and Pease (1990)
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How can displacement be used to achieve a spread of crime that can be regarded as equitable
crime fuses |
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benign displacement
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changes from displacement may benefit society
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malign displacement
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changes from displacement lead to less desirable outcomes
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diffusion
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assumes that prevention efforts will benefit people and places other than those targeted
halo effect free bonus effect |
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routines activities theory
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the normal movement an activities of both potential offenders and victims plays a role in the occurrence of crime
Cohen and Felson suitable target motivated offender lack of capable guardian |
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CRAVED model for targets of theft
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Concealable
Removable Available Valuable Enjoyable Disposable |
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Concealable
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ability of a theif to hide items during the crime
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removable
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size and weight make some items more portable than others
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Available
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the item must exist and be available to be stolen
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valuable
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items that hold more value will be targeted
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enjoyable
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the items must bring enjoyment to the offender
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disposable
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there must be a market for the stolen item
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Eck 1994 triplets of guardianship
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guardians
handlers managers (property crimes) |
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rational choice theory
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in order for crime prevention activities to have an impact, offenders must be making rational decisions based on their perceptions of needs, risks, payoff and other factors
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rational choice theory soft determinism
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individuals make choices but only within the realm of available alternatives presented to them
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rational choice theory- limited rationality
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The offenders appear to respond to a set of internal-
ized cues based on past experience and planning rather than specific detailed planning for each event. |
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rational choice theory- opportunity cues
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Among the cues are closedup homes without air conditioning in warm months, an absence of cars at
home, the entire family leaving together, available concealment, visual signs of wealth, and easy access to the home |
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crime pattern theory
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Crime and criminal behavior fits patterns that can be identified and understood when viewed in terms of where and when they occur
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crime pattern theory- environmental backcloth
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refers to the social, economic, cultural, and physical conditions within which people operate.
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Crime pattern theory- social/crime template
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is the idea that people have templates that outline expectations of what will happen at certain times and places given certain behavior by the individual. In essence, the template tells an offender what should occur in a certain place, time or situation.
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crime pattern theory-Nodes
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Crime generators
Crime attractors Hunting grounds |
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cognitive maps
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nodes
paths edges |
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elements of cognitive mapping
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recognition, prediction, evaluation, action
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recognition
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being able to identify ur surroundings
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prediction
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Being able to identify predict what will take place at a particular location based on recognition of the immediate environment
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evaluation
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Assessing what behavior is possible and acceptable in a particular area
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action
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Making a final decision on what to do based on the first three components
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predicting displacement locations
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Is the intervention site a crime generator, crime attractor, or crime neutral
Analyze the neighborhood Analyze the characteristics of the probable displaced offenders Analyze land uses Analyze the street network Analyze the transportation network |
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displacement effects- territorial displacement
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Most common form of displacement considered in evaluations
Journey to crime Euclidean distance Manhattan distance Distance decay Opportunities play a role in long distances Distance tends to increase with an offender’s age |
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temporal displacement
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Several studies make explicit note about possible offense shifts across time
Street lighting studies Increased surveillance studies Other studies fail to show temporal displacement Auto theft study |
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tactical displacement
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Crime prevention efforts can make the criminal work harder
Shift in burglary from entering through open doors to breaking windows for access Alley gating moves the point of entry for burglary from the rear of the building to the front of homes Target hardening leads to greater instances of forced locks and broken windows |
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target displacement
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Shift in offending from one set of victims to another set of potential victims
Shift from residential areas to commercial establishments There is also evidence that offenders target objects that are not as easily marked by owners |
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functional displacement
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Manifests itself in terms of changes in offenses committed by the offender
Investigation is through the comparison of different individual crime rates before and after program implementation There has been some evidence of benign displacement as well |
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diffusion effects
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Areas, items, or individuals not targeted by a crime prevention program also benefit from the intervention
Measuring diffusion is difficult but evaluations are paying more attention to the possibility of diffusion in their designs and analyses Reductions in both the target and control areas may be the result of general decreases in society Displacement and diffusion may occur at the same time, resulting in no apparent change in the non-treatment area Some report that diffusion may occur in the opposite direction Diffusion should be considered as a counterbalancing force to displacement |
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the level of reported crime
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content analyses of newspapers
television news entertainment programs reality programs |
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media accounts and actual crime
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focuses on selected types of crime
overemphasizes the level of crimeFails to provide accurate or complete information about criminal incidents Fails to report on the activity of the criminal justice system or provide much information about the offender and victim Can cause _an apparent increase in crime_by reporting crime occurring in other communities without clearly noting the location of the offense The media focuses on the spectacle of the offense_ and ignores the potential harm arising from incomplete reporting |
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the media and fear
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Media presentations may increase fear of crime
Local crime stories in newspapers tend to raise the _level of fear_ among readers Fear varies with the saliency_of the crime reports High levels of television viewing have also been found to raise fear |
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mass media and crime prevention activities- purposes of the media
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Increasing the risk to offenders
_increasing the perceived risk to offenders_ Encouraging safety practices by the public Reassuring the public |
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McGruff prevention campaign- taking a bite out of crime. most recognizable component of the NCPC
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These organizations joined forces to launch the “Taking a Bite Out of Crime” program, featuring McGruff the crime dog who presents simulated crimes and notes the proper actions viewers should take when confronted with similar situations.
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national crime prevention council (NCPC)
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To alter the public’s feelings about crime and the criminal justice system
To generate feelings of _citizen responsibility_ for crime and crime prevention To enhance citizen cooperation with the criminal justice system for fighting crime To enhance already existing crime prevention efforts |
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other campaigns
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Media campaigns have the potential to change both the _levels of fear_and the actual amounts of crime
Other studies report that the messages reach the public, but few individuals report _undertaking the suggested prevention activities_ The impact of a media campaign is related to the saliency of the program for the viewer Crime prevention programs need to reach the intended or most vulnerable audiences Programs need to set _modest, realistic_goals that focus on specific attitudes and behaviors Crime prevention programs require assistance for individuals who lack _resources_ and _power_ to follow specific prevention techniques |
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crime newsletters
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Can be targeted to a much more limited audience and tailored to the needs of those individuals
Provide information on a wide range of _related topics_ Educational tool They can raise the level of concern about crime among the citizenry Increased citizen prevention activities |
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newsletter content areas
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Self-protection techniques
Ways to report crime Locations of police or protection resources _dangerous areas_ Offender addresses Area crime problems |
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information lines
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Solicitation of information about specific crimes from the public
Public presentation of crime information involving _citizens in crime prevention_ Crime Stoppers Studies have reported _positive results_, but there is no indication that information lines have reduced crime or the fear of crime |
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crime-time television response generalization
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viewers may generalize from the response
being promoted in the program (such as simply calling for help) to other possible responses not featured in the program (such as carrying weapons and taking direct action) |
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content analysis
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A form of research in which the researcher examines different forms of media to make generalizations
Historical developments Population trends Social attitudes _behaviors_ Other aspects of social life |
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publicity and prevention
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Smaller scale and targeted publicity about prevention programs and initiatives can have an impact on the success of crime prevention
Publicity may be intentional or it may be more _informal |
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key elements for successful campaigns
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Specification of a well-defined _target audience_
Formative research Messages that focus on the target audience’s _characteristics_ A media plan that guarantees exposure to the campaign Procedures for _evaluating progress__ A long-term commitment |
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campaign messages
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Should address the existing knowledge_ and beliefs of the target audience that impede adoption of the desired behavior
Mass media campaigns should communicate _incentives_ or benefits for adopting the desired behavior The target audience’s attention should be drawn to immediate, high-probability consequences of _behavior_ The use of emotionally arousing fear appeals should be approached with great caution Campaign messages directed to preteens and adolescents should capitalize on important themes in the development of adolescent _identity_ The use of celebrity spokespersons must be approached _cautiously_ |
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the media's responsibility for crime prevention
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The media must assume some of the blame for the continued failure of policies to deal with crime
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general deterrence- theoretical background
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Punishment can be justified on moralistic grounds as _retribution_
Others justify punishment as a rational means to the end of crime reduction One _utilitarian_justification for incarceration is its ability to incapacitate offenders Another utilitarian rationale for punishment is its potential to _deter_crime |
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deterrence
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influencing through _fear_
Primary prevention technique The likelihood of deterrence increases as the risk of punishment increases May be referred to as “general prevention” |
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specific deterrence
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is aimed at the individual offender and his or her future behavior.
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general deterrence
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on the other hand, aims to have an impact on more
than the single offender. The apprehension and punishment of one person hopefully serves as an example to other offenders and potential law violators. |
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requirements for deterrence
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Severity
_certainty___ Celerity |
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conceptualization of sanctions
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The _stigma_ of arrest
Attachment costs _commitment__ costs |
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the deterrent effect of legal sanctions
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Cross-sectional Studies
_longitudinal analyses_ Panel Studies |
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cross-sectional studies (Ehrlich)
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Typically examine differences between _homicide_ rates between areas that have and those that do not have the death penalty
While examining the relationship between homicide and probabilities of apprehension, conviction, and execution, Ehrlich claims that each execution deters seven to eight homicides. This result persists when controlling for a number of demographic variables, including age of the population and socio- economic indicators |
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longitudinal research
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Look at the introduction of a change on the _outcome_ variable
The observer can see when the changes occur, evaluate the time lag between the intervention and the change, and examine whether the effect is short- or long-term |
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Bowers and Pierce Brutalization Effect (longitudinal research)
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claim that there are two more homicides in the
month immediately following an execution and one more in the second month after an execution than would be normally expected. It appears that the use of the death penalty causes an absolute increase of three homicides after the execution. |
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panel studies
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Follows a number of separate units over a period of time
Both _cross-sectional_ and longitudinal designs suffer from serious problems (Shepherd, 2005) Most recent panel analyses claim strong support for the deterrent effect of the death penalty |
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major findings
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There are _contradictory_ results on the deterrent effect of sentencing
There is little or no evidence that severity has an individual deterrent effect _certainty_ of apprehension and punishment seems to have some impact on the level of offending |
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perceptions and deterrence
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The existence of a law or the actual imposition of a _sanction_ will only affect individuals who perceive risk to themselves
The lack of knowledge about the chances for arrest and the penalty incurred for breaking the law may also result in a lack of _deterrence_ Various studies find that offenders, as well as the general population, are often unaware of the __general population__ and changes in the law |
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perceived certainty (experiential effect)
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The problem with most research on perceived certainty of apprehension and punishment is that the analyses measure a person’s perceptions and relate that to past deviant behavior. Problematically, a finding of low perceived risk along with past participation in criminal activity may indicate that the lack of past apprehension engenders the current view of low risk
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secondary crime prevention
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individuals, places, and situations that have a high potential for _deviance_
Like primary prevention, the emphasis is still on preventing crime prior to its _initial occurrence_ Concerned with _intervening_with those situations and those persons who display a tendency toward criminal behavior |
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predicting future offending
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Making predictions about future behavior involves making a number of _initial decisions_
What is being predicted? What are the proper variables to use in the analyses? What is the degree of _accuracy_ in the predictions? |
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potential outcomes of prediction
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true positive prediction
false positive prediction true negative prediction false negative prediction |
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true positive prediction
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something is predicted to occur and it does
a successful prediction |
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false positive prediction
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something is predicted to occur but it does not
a failed prediction |
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true negative prediction
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something is predicted not to occur and it does not
a successful prediction |
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false negative prediction
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something is predicted not to occur but it does occur
a failed prediction |
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types of prediction
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Clinical Prediction
Actuarial Predictions Criminal Career Research |
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clinical prediction
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Based on a _rater's_ evaluation of an individual
Usually after interviews and direct examination of the subject and their records Research on the clinical prediction of violence reveals a great tendency for _false determinations_ |
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actuarial predictions
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Making predictions based on known _parameters_ in the data
The level of error is smaller than that found in _clinical_ studies The use of different _predictive_ techniques does not appear to alter the results Consistent attempts to predict individual behavior based on group data __ecological fallacy_ |
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ecological fallacy
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a totally inappropriate use of the data
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criminal career research
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past_criminal behavior is used to predict _future_offending
The inspection of behavior for criminal _specialization_ The investigation of patterns of activity _chronic_ offenders tend to continue committing crime |
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risk factors and prediction
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Risk factors are _indicators_ of who may become deviant in the future
Family _peer community__ Psychological/Personality Biological risk factors |
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family factors
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A wide range of family situations and factors influence both the _immediate_ care of an individual as well as _later_ behavior
Relation between _parental_ criminality and the behavior of the offspring Poor parental supervision and inconsistent and harsh discipline Being the recipient of or witness to abuse and maltreatment Family relations or bonding _family size_ |
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peer factors
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The influence of peers is generally viewed as one of the _most important_ factors involved in adolescent behavior
The presence and/or participation in gangs _antisocial_ behavior of siblings |
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community influences on behavior
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Another potential source of risk is the community within which an individual is raised and lives
Economic deprivation _disorder/incivilitiy____ Poor neighborhood integration The availability of firearms Low socioeconomic status _level of gang activity_ |
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psychological/personality facots
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An array of psychological and personality variables have been identified as risk factors for _aggressive__ behavior
Hyperactivity among preteens Impulsivity Problems with concentration Learning disabilities _low IQ_ Other issues that may inhibit an individual’s success |
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biological risk factors
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Biological risk factors are identified in a number of studies
Prenatal and perinatal complications __neurotransmitters__ Low resting heart rate |
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using risk factors as predictors
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Pittsburg Youth Study
Authority conflict _covert behavior_ Overt behavior |
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dimensions of criminal careers
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Sherman
Date of onset of any criminality The odds of _recurrence_of further crime Rate of frequency of crimes Total _career__length Average intermittency Types of crime committed and the amount of _specialization___ |
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predicting places and events
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Classic research examined the timing of events according to the _season_ of the year
It is common for police agencies to distribute their resources _differentially_ across their jurisdiction and at different times of the day |
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hot spots for crime
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It is a common practice of police to identify _locations_ and _times_ that are more prone to criminal activity
“Small places in which the occurrence of crime is so frequent that it is highly predictable, at least over a one-year period.” -Sherman (1995) |
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prospective mapping
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the creation of maps that predict future crime locations based on knowledge of recent events. This is based on findings that show a burglary at one location results in heightened chances of victimization at nearby locations
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repeat victimization
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Can be considered in terms of both people and places being victimized at least a second time within some period of time subsequent to an initial victimization event
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typology of repeat victimization
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target
tactical (virtual) temporal spatial (near) crime type offender |
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target
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crime against the same target.
ex same person, building, etc |
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tactical
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crime requiring the same skill to commit.
particular types of locks web sites with particular types of security |
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temporal
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an offending spree-temporal proximity is the defining characteristic
ex multiple burglaries of different properties in the same night |
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spatial (near)
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crime in nearby location due to proximity and characteristics
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crime type
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the same target victimized by different types of crime
ex same target is burglarized, assualted, robbed at different times |
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offender
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victimization of the same target by different offenders
ex a property appears attractive to different offenders |
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implications for crime prevention
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Allows the introduction of appropriate crime prevention techniques _prior_ to the deviant activity
Research on criminal careers also has failed to adequately identify high-risk individuals prior to the establishment of a _career_ Some turn the attention away from predict individual behavior and toward prediction of places, times, and targets of offending The _geographic_ and _temporal_ identification of hot spots, the identification of hot products, and the use of information on repeat victimization are approaches with potential use in secondary crime prevention |
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situational crime prevention Clarke definition
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can be characterized as comprising measures
(1) directed at highly specific forms of crime (2) that involve the management, design, or manipulation of the immediate environment in as systematic and permanent a way as possible (3) so as to reduce the opportunities for crime and increase the risks as perceived by a wide range of offenders. |
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situational crime prevention
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aimed at specific problems, places, persons, or times
Assumes that a greater degree of ____problem identification_______ and planning will take place prior to program implementation and that the impact will be more focused The identification of places and individuals at risk of ____victimization_____ are central to a great deal of situational prevention |
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theoretical basis of situational crime prevention
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rational choice theory
routine activities theory lifestyle perspective theory crime pattern theory |
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the process of situational prevention
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study the problem
identify possible responses implement the intervention evaluate and adjust the intervention |
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situational typologies Clarke 1983
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surveillance
target hardening environmental management |
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expanding the typology- Wortley 1996
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guilt and shame are not the same thing and that these concepts should be separated
prompts pressures permissibility provocations |
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expanding the typology purposes
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Places the great array of situational crime prevention activities and programs into a theoretical framework
Helps to identify the potential _casual factors_ at work Serves as a simple ___reference tool__ for those attempting to implement prevention programs |
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25 techniques of situational prevention- increase the effort
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target harden
control access to facilities screen exits deflect offenders control tools/weapons |
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25 techniques of situational prevention- increase the risks
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extend guardianship
assis natural surveillance reduce anonymity utilize place managers strengthen formal surveillance |
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25 techniques of situational prevention- reduce the rewards
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conceal targets
remove targets identify property disrupt markets deny benefits |
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25 techniques of situational prevention- reduce provocations
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reduce frustrations and stress
avoid disputes reduce emotional arousal neutralize peer pressure discourage imitation |
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25 techniques of situational prevention- remove excuses
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set rules
post instructions alert conscience assis compliance control drugs and alcohol |
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kirkholt housing estates
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A major thrust of the program was to target burglary victims to prevent further offenses. Among the prevention actions were improved physical security of homes, property identification, and “cocoon” Neighborhood Watch (small numbers of homes per group). A key element of the project was the removal of pre-payment fuel meters in burglarized homes
significant reductions in repeat burglaries after program |
