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122 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
When is sugar first digested in the human body? |
mouth (amylase digests starch into maltose, a disaccharide) |
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What are the sections of the small intestine (in order)? |
duodenum, jujunum, ileum (mnemonic: Dow Jones Industrial average) |
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This flap of skin directs food to the esophagus and air to the trachea |
epiglottis |
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Food is converted to this after digestion in the mouth |
bolus |
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This describes the process in which the food moves down the esophagus |
peristalsis (smooth muscle contraction) |
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This sphincter separates the esophagus and stomach |
cardiac sphincter |
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HCl is produced in the stomach by what? |
gastric glands |
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Pepsinogen is activated under what conditions? |
acidic conditions (HCl in the stomach) |
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This sphincter lies between the stomach and small intestine |
pyloric sphincter |
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Where is protein first digested in the human body? |
Stomach (via pepsin) |
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Food in the stomach is turned from bolus into what? |
chyme (broken down food + acid) |
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Where is the major site of chemical digestion in the human body? |
Small intestine (duodenum) |
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Where is the major site of absorption in the human digestive system? |
small intestine (jejunum, ileum) |
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The epiglottis is located where? |
within the pharynx |
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What is the function of cilia in the small intestine? |
increase surface area for absoprtion |
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What is the main purpose of the large intestine? |
water and salt reabsorption |
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What are the sections of the large intestine (in order)? |
cecum, colon, rectum |
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What does E. coli do in the large intestine? |
produces vitamin K as a byproduct, protects us against foreign invaders |
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Where is the appendix and what is its function? |
large intestine (specifically, cecum). Function - vestigial organ, now functions as a reservoir for bacteria |
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What is the function of the colon? |
Main site of water and salt reabsorption |
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What is the function of the rectum? |
storage unit for the feces until elimination via the anus |
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What is the function of the liver? |
detoxification, urea formation, bile salt production, converts glucose to glycogen and glycogen to glucose |
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Where is bile produced and stored? |
produced by the liver, stored in the gallbladder |
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Where is bile released from the gall bladder? |
Into the duodenum via the bile duct |
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What is the function of bile salts? |
emulsify/breakdown fats |
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What is the main function of the pancreas? What hormones does it produce? |
regulate blood glucose concentration via insulin and glucagon |
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If the body's pancreatic beta-cells were destroyed, how would the body be affected? |
inability to produce insulin, high blood glucose (aka diabetes type 1) |
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Where is glucagon produced? What does it do? |
Pancreas (alpha-cells). It raises blood glucose |
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Why does the pancreas secrete bicarbonate ions into the duodenum? |
to neutralize the acidicity of chyme |
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What is the pH of human blood? |
~7.4 |
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What is the human internal body temperature? |
37C |
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What is serum? |
Plasma without the clotting factors |
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Describe red blood cells. |
forms in the bone marrow, no organelles or nucleus, has hemoglobin to bind oxygen |
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What blood types are the universal donor/acceptor? |
donor: O-, acceptor: AB+ |
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A mom (Rh-) gives birth to a child (Rh+). Is the child in danger? |
No, but the mom now has antibodies against the Rh+ antigen |
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A mom (Rh-) gives birth to two children, months apart. They are both Rh+. Are the children in danger? |
The first one is safe, but the second one is. The mom's antibodies will attack the Rh+ antigen. |
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What is the treatment for the Rh problem during childbirth? |
Suppressing the mom's immune response long enough to give childbirth |
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Define arteries and veins. |
Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood towards the heart. |
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Describe the pathway of blood. |
1. RA to RV (tricuspid AV valve) 2. RV to lungs (semilunar valve + pulmonary artery 3. lungs to LA (pulmonary vein) 4. LA to LV (mitral/bicuspid AV valve) 5. LV to body (aortic valve + aorta) 6. body to RA (superior and inferior vena cavae) |
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Rank in order of size: arteries, capillaries, arterioles |
Biggest to smallest: arteries, arterioles, capillaries.
For veins: veins, venules, capillaries |
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What is the pathway of the cardiac cycle? |
SA Node > AV Node > Bundle of His > Purkinje fibers |
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What and where is the heart's "natural pacemaker?" |
the SA Node, located at the right atrium |
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What does systole and diastole refer to? |
systole - ventricle contract, diastole - ventricle relax. |
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What is the pathway of the respiratory system? |
pharnyx > larynx > trachea > bronchi > alveoli (mnemonic: Please Leave The Breathing Alone) |
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Which lung is bigger and why? |
Right lung has 3 lobes, left has 2 since room is needed for the heart |
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What term describes the volume of air displaced during breathing at rest? |
tidal volume |
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What terms describes the max volume of air you can inhale or exhale? |
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and expiratory reserve volume (ERV) |
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How do you calculate total lung capacity? |
Tidal Volume + IRV + ERV + residual volume |
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Define osteoblast and osteoclast. |
osteoblast: cells that build bone. osteoclast: cells that break down bone |
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Define tendons and ligaments. |
tendons: connect bone to muscle, ligaments: connect bone to bone |
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What two things are required for a sarcomere to contract? |
Ca2+ and ATP |
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Which muscle(s) are striated? |
skeletal and cardiac |
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What muscle types are there? |
skeletal, smooth, cardiac |
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What is the anatomy of a basic neuron cell and its functions? |
Dendrites - receive signals. Cell body (soma) - nucleus, organelles, NT synthesis. Axon - transmits signal away from cell body to other cells |
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What is the purpose of myelin? What cells produce myelin? |
purpose: insulate neurons to speed up action potential. CNS: produced by oligodendrocytes. PNS: produced by Schwann cells |
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What are the gaps between the myelin sheath called? What is the whole process called? |
nodes of Ranvier. Saltatory Conduction |
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The gap between an axon and the next dendrite is referred to as a? |
synapse |
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neurotransmitter release is usually dependent on these type of channels |
Ca2+ voltage-gated channels |
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What is the cell's resting potential? How is it maintained? |
-70mV. Sodium-Potassium Pump (3Na+ out, 2K+ in) |
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When is threshold? What happens after? |
-50mV. Rapid depolarization occurs afterwards, activating Na+ voltage-gated channels (Na+ influx). This triggers release of NT. At its peak, +35mV |
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What causes hyperpolarization? What is special about this period? |
Caused by the delayed closing of potassium channels. During the refractory period, no action potentials can be triggered |
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Briefly describe the sympathetic and parasympathetic system. Is this part of the CNS or PNS? |
sympathetic - fight or flight response. parasympathetic - rest and digest. PNS |
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What hormone(s) are produced at the hypothalamus? |
ADH and oxytocin |
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What hormone(s) are produced at the posterior pituitary? |
None. It only stores the ADH and oxytocin produced by the hypothalamus |
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What hormone(s) are produced at the anterior pituitary? |
Mnemonic: FLAT PEG
FSH, LSH, ACTH, TSH, Prolactin, Endorphins, Growth Hormone |
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What hormone(s) are required for breastfeeding? |
prolactin and oxytocin. prolactin stimulates milk production, while oxytocin is responsible for lactation |
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What are tropic hormones? Which hormones of the anterior pituitary are tropic? |
tropic hormones: hormones that regulate other endocrine glands. anterior pituitary: FSH, LH, ACTH, TSH |
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What hormone stimulates the thyroid gland and where is it produced? |
TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) is produced at the anterior pituitary |
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What is the function of TSH? |
stimulates the thyroid gland to absorb iodine, produce thyroid hormones |
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What hormone(s) regulate blood calcium? Where are they produced? |
calcitonin (thyroid) lowers blood calcium. PTH (parathyroid) raises blood calcium |
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What hormones are responsible mainly for pain inhibition? Where are they produced? |
endorphins @ anterior pituitary |
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What hormone is mainly responsible for growth and where is this hormone produced? |
Growth Hormone @ anterior pituitary |
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What is the function of FSH? |
FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone) stimulates the follicles [really, Aries? That's obvious]. Females: maturation of ovarian follicles. Males: spermatogenesis |
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What hormone stimulates the testes to produce testosterone? |
LH |
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What hormone stimulates the formation of the corpus luteum? |
LH |
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What hormone stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce glucocorticoids? |
ACTH |
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What is the function of the thyroid gland? |
regulate metabolic rate. Releases T4 (throxine), which is converted to T3 (triiodothyronine) at the active site. Controls iodine levels |
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What is the general function of glucocorticoids? Name one example. |
raises blood glucose, decrease protein synthesis, reduce inflammation (e.g. cortisol) |
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What is the general function of mineralocorticoids? |
controls salt and water levels to regulate blood volume/pressure, pH |
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What is the function of the adrenal medulla? |
Production of epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) |
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What hormones are produced by the ovaries? |
estrogen and progesterone |
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What hormone(s) are responsible for the formation and maintenance of the endometrium? |
estrogen - formation. progesterone - maintenance |
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A person with blood type O will recognize which antigens? |
None. O blood types have no antigens, so the immune cells will attack every blood type except O itself. |
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What are the components of the CNS and PNS? |
CNS - brain and spinal cord. PNS - everything else |
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Which part of the nephron does ADH affect? |
ADH changes the permeability of the collecting duct to regulate water reabsorption |
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What happens at the descending loope of Henle? |
Water reabsorption |
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What happens at the ascending loop of Henle? |
reabsorption of salts |
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What is the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System? |
In response to low blood pressure > liver releases angiotensinogen > converted to angiotensin I (via renin) > converted to angiotensin II (via ACE) > converted to aldosterone (via adrenal cortex) > increased Na+ reabsorption, increased water uptake via osmosis |
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What are the two main hormones that regulate water reabsorption in the urinary system? |
Aldosterone and ADH |
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How does the skin protect us? |
Physical barrier. Acid surface. Bacteria protects against invaders. Mucus traps pathogens. |
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What is the pathway of sperm cells? |
mnemonic: SEVEn UP
Seminiferous tubules, epididymis, vas deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis |
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Where is the site of sperm storage and maturation? |
epididymis |
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What glands contribute to the production of semen? |
seminal vesicles, prostate gland (secrete alkaline fluid), bulbourethral glands |
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What are the four phases of the cell cycle? In what step is DNA replicated? |
G1, S (DNA replication), G2, M. The first three phases are referred to as interphase. |
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sister chromatids are joined together by what? |
centromere |
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Where does the spindle fibers attach to to pull apart sister chromatids during mitosis? |
kinetochores on the centromere |
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What are the stages of mitosis? |
PMAT. prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, (cytokinesis) |
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When does crossing over occur? |
Propose I of meiosis |
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The point at which crossing over occurs is... |
chiasmata |
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What is the anatomy of sperm (and its functions)? |
head - genetic material. midpiece - generates energy. tail - motility. |
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Why is it that maternal lineage can be directed traced? |
mitochondria have their own DNA. Because a person's organelles come from the mom (dad only donates DNA), this mito-DNA can be traced. |
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Fertilization takes place specifically where? |
in the fallopian tube (oviduct) |
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After a zygote undergoes successive cleavage, it eventually forms into a ball with a hollow, liquid cavity. This is called a... |
blastula. (cavity is referred to as blastocoel) |
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After a zygote undergoes successive cleavage, it eventually forms into a solid ball of cells. This is called a... |
morula |
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After a zygote undergoes successive cleavage, it eventually forms into three distinct germ layers. This is called a... |
gastrula |
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In a gastrula, what is the opening called? What does this opening eventually become? |
blastopore. in protostomes, this becomes the mouth. in deuterostomes, this becomes the anus. |
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In diploid organisms, we have.... |
two copies of every chromosome (homologous chromosomes) |
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When two homologous chromosomes pair up, this is referred to as a... |
tetrad |
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What is the law of segregation? |
only one member of each chromosome pair migrates to the opposite polar. For example, with 2 copies of XX, each daughter cell only gets 1 copy. One daughter cell won't get 2 copies, except in nondisjunction |
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What is the law of independent assortment? |
migration of one pair of chromosomes do not affect the migration of other chromosomes |
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What are linked genes? |
2+ genes that are inherited together because they are physically connected on the same chromosome |
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What is X-inactivation? |
Females have two copies of X. during development, only 1 X is activate. The other X is not expressed and is referred to as a Barr Body. |
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What is a vaccine? |
Usually created from a weakened version of a pathogen to develop antibodies in the host. |
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The series of mitotic divisions that occur following fertilization is called: |
cleavage |
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The specific location of a gene on a chromosome is called the ... |
locus |
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A karyotype is a visual representation in which chromosomes are viewed. At which stage are the chromosomes examined and why? |
metaphase, since the chromosomes are most condensed at this stage |
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The space inside a tube is referred to as the... |
lumen |
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Which embryonic germ layer will develop teeth? |
ectoderm |
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A protein of 330 amino acids is comprised of how many DNA nucleotides? |
990. 3 nucleotides = 1 codon = codes for 1 AA |
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The initiation of a heart rate is controlled by the... |
SA Node |
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The inferior vena cava carries blood from the body to which part of the heart? |
Right Atrium |
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Which part of the heart is the largest and why? |
The left ventricle because it pumps blood to the entire body via the aorta. The right ventricle for comparison, only has to pump blood to the lungs. |