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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
what is nutrition?
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the essentials needed to conduct life: starting point for all human form & functions
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what is body weight & appetite controlled by?
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peptide hormones & regulatory pathways (some gut-brain peptides)
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what are gut-brain peptides?
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hormones that act as chemical signals from gastrointestinal tract to brain
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what are short term appetite regulators?
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Ghrelin, Peptide YY (PYY), & Cholecystokinin (CCK)
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What is the function of Ghrelin?
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produces hunger by stimulating the hypothalamus to produce growth-hormone-releasing hormone
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Where does Ghrelin come from?
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it is secreted by parietal cells in stomach
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Where does Cholecystokinin come from?
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secreted from enteroendocrine cells in duodenum & jejunum
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What is the function of Peptide YY?
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acts as and "ileal brake" prevents stomach from emptying too quickly prolonging sense of satiety
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Where does the Peptide YY come from?
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secreted by the enteroendocrine cells in small intestine and ileum (colon)
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What is the function of Cholecystokinin?
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suppresses appetite by stimulating secretion of bile & pancreatic enzymes (works in conjunction with PYY)
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What are long term appetite regulators?
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Leptin & Insulin
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How do long term regulators function?
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by negative feedback governing average calorie intake & energy expenditure over weeks-years working as adiposity signals activating mechanisms for adding/ reducing fat
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What is Leptin?
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Peptide that lets the brain know how much fat we have
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Where does Leptin come from?
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secreted by adipocytes
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What are adiposity signals?
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signals that long term regulators send to the brain to inform how much adipose tissue the body has
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How is Insulin an appetite regulator?
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Stimulates glucose & amino acid uptake (for energy) & Promotes glycogen & fat synthesis. Also pulls glucose out of blood to metabolize
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What is the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus?
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involved in hunger & satiety. Secrete Neuropeptide Y (NPY) & Melanocortin. All peptides in appetite regulation have receptors in the arcuate nucleus.
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what is the function of Neuropeptide Y (NPY)?
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appetite stimulant (hunger)
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What is the function of Melanocortin?
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inhibits eating (satiety)
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What governs the appetite for specific nutrients? (cravings)
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neurotransmitters. different ones for each class of nutrients
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What stimulates the appetite for carbs?
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Norepinephrine
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What stimulates the appetite for fatty foods?
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Galanin (neurotransmitter)
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What stimulates the appetite for proteins?
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Endorphins
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What are calories?
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the amount of heat needed to raise the temp of 1 degree of water by 1 degree c
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1000 calories=
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1 Calorie (capital C) in dietetics or 1 Kcal in biochemistry
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what is a nutrient?
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any ingested chemical that is used for growth, repair, or maintenance of the body
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What are hydrophobic, yet must be transported to all cells of the body?
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Lipids
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What are lipoproteins?
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tiny droplets with core of cholesterol & tryglycerides, & coating of proteins & phospholipids.
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What are the function of the protein & phospholipid coatings on lipoproteins?
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enables lipids to remain suspended in the blood but also serves as a recognition marker for cells that absorb them
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What are the 4 major classes of lipoproteins?
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Chylomicron, VLDL, LDL, & HDL. The higher the proportion of protein to lipid, the higher the density
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What are monounsaturated fats?
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(oils), 2 electrons shared, mono= 1 change, poly= many changes. Weaker bonds that digest easier because less energy is used to break down
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What are saturated fats?
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solids (butter), 4 electrons shared therefore stronger bond & requires more energy to break down
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What are essential nutrients?
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Nutrients that we must ingest because the body is incapable of synthesized on its own: minerals, most vitamins, 8 of the amino acids, & 1 fatty acid
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What are vitamins?
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proteins & enzymes
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What are fat soluble vitamins?
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A, D, E, K, and they deposit into adipose for various functions
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What are water soluble vitamins?
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C & B. absorb with water from small intestine, dissolve freely, & are excreted by kidneys, cannot be stored
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what is hypervitaminosis?
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a lethal vitamin A overdose
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Functions of the liver in metabolism & synthesis:
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Metabolizes carbs, lipids, proteins, vitamins/ minerals. Synthesizes plasma proteins, bile acids, & lecithin. Detoxes drugs, toxins, & hormones. Phagocytosis: macrophages cleanse blood of bacteria & other foreign matter
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What is fuel referred to in metabolism?
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a chemical oxidized solely or primarily to extract energy from it
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What is anabolism?
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Any metabolic reactions that USE energy to Synthesize molymers with higher free energy to polymers with lower free energy (example: synthesis of proteins from amino acids)
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What is Catabolism?
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Any metabolic reaction that MAKES energy & BREAKS DOWN polymers with higher free energy to monomers with lower free energy (example: digestion & glycosis)
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What is metabolism?
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Ingested molecules chemically changed to form their own structures, control their physiology, or provide energy. (Anabolism & Catabolism make up Metabolism)
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What is cellular respiration?
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using glucose to make energy by chemical reactions
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What is the only organism that can to decide to maintain the cellular respiration/photosynthesis cycle?
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humans
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What does the abbreviation ATP stand for?
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Adenosine Triphosphate
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What is ATP made of?
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it is a nucleic acid made of Adenine (base), Ribose (sugar), & 3 Phosphate (mono, di, & si)
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What makes ATP so unique?
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it is 3 negatively charged ions bonded together. (jack in box) bond breaks easily
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What does ALL food digest to?
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Glucose (which makes energy)
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How many ATP are made with 1 molecule of glucose?
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36
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What is Chemiosmosis?
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using chemicals to make water & ATP
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What is Cristae?
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the membranes of mitchondria
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3 major pathways of glucose catabolism are:
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Glycolysis, Anaerobic Fermentation, & Aerobic Respiration
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What is glycolysis?
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splitting of glucose molecule into 2 pyruvic acid molecules. Uses 2 ATP to make 4 ATP. Net is +2 ATP
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What is necessary for glycolysis?
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food
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What is anaerobic fermentation?
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occurs in ABSENCE of oxygen. Reduces pyruvic acid to lactic acid, & Regenerates NAD+ so glycolysis can continue to function
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What is aerobic respiration?
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in PRESENCE of oxygen. Oxidizes pyruvic acid to CO2 and H2O (produces most ATP of cellular respiration)
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The Krebs Cycle is also known as?
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the Citric Acid Cycle or TCA
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What is the function of Krebs Cycle?
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Uses 2 pyruvic acids (made from glycolysis) to make 2 Kreb Cycles generating 1 ATP per cycle (total of 2 ATP)
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What is necessary for Krebs Cycle to function?
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water
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What is Acetyl-CoA?
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3 pyruvic acid minus Co2 used as entree to Krebs Cycle
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What is Citric Acid?
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(C6) beginning of Krebs Cycle. Acetyl-CoA + C4 compound= C6
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How do we get nucleotides?
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ingesting cells. We digest DNA in nucleus & RNA in cytoplasm to nucleotides & use them (anabolism) to make DNA & RNA
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When the brain feeds on keytone bodies (amino acids) because you are not ingesting them, the body goes into a state of ketoacidsis. This means you are:
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Anorexic
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What is ketoacidsis?
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bypassing Glycosis & going straight into other cycles
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Where does electron transport take place?
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in the cristae
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What is succinate?
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FADH2= electron carrier
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What is the electron transport & chemiosmosis process?
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electrons carried to cristae & jump until they get oxygen. Each jump makes ATP. Oxygen is final accepter. Uses oxygen to form H2o. 32 ATP made
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Energy storers in order from 1st to last are:
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carb stores, fat stores, then protein stores
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What is Oxidative Respiration?
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electron transport & chemiosmosis, & Kreb cycle producing 34 ATP total. Aerobic
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What is Pyruvate Anaerobic?
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makes lactic acid, ethyl, & CO2 by fermentation producing 2 ATP
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What is Pyruvate Aerobic?
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makes 34 ATP by oxidative respiration
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How many ATP are made for each molecule of glucose with Aerobic exercise?
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34 ATP
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What is Glycogenesis?
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making glycogen (stimulated by insulin)
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What is Glycogenolysis?
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the Hydrolysis of Glycogen, releases glucose between meals when its not being ingested (stimulated by Glucagon & Norepinephrine
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What is Glyconeogenesis?
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Synthesis of Glucose from Non-Carbs such as Fats & Amino Acids (Keto Acids) Occurs in liver but if fasting for many weeks kidneys begin process as well
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What is Glycogen?
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Chain of Glucose
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What is Lipolysis?
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Breaking down fat for fuel
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What is Lipogenesis?
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Synthesizing fats from other types of molecules. (Acetyl-CoA can be diverted to make fatty acids & sugars. Amino acids can divert glycerol all combining to make Tryglycerides/fats
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If there is still enough glucose in the blood after the body has enough ATP, what does the glucose now convert to?
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Glycogen & Fat because they store energy (Glycogenesis, Gluconeogenesis, & Lipogenesis)
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What is a Keto Acid?
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an amino acid deaminated (-NH2 group removed)
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Keto Acid can be converted to ____, _____, or ____ depending on which amino acid is involved in making the Keto Acid.
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Pyruvic acid, Acetyl-CoA, or one of the acids in Krebs Cycle
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-NH2 is deaminated from Keto Acid & transferred to Krebs Cycle intermediate, _____, converting it to _______.
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Ketoglutaric acid, Glutamic acid
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What are Glutamic Acids?
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Major amino acids that travel to liver where -NH2 group os removed converting it back to Ketoglutaric Acid
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When -NH2 is removed from Glutamic Acid in liver, it becomes _______.
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Ammonia (NH3)
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Livers converts NH3 to _______ by way of _______ Cycle.
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Urea, Ornithine
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What is Deamination?
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removal of a amino group
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What is Amination?
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the addition of -NH2
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What is Transamination?
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the transfer of -NH2 from one molecule to another
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What is Thermoregulation?
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homeostasis. the balance between heat production & loss
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What is Hypothalamic Thermostat?
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Monitors temp in blood & skin. receives signals from peripheral thermoreceptors in skin & sends signals to heat losing/ promoting center
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What is heat promoting center?
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SNS- Cutaneous Vasoconstriction, stimulates pilli arrecter muscles. If those do not work body starts Shivering Thermogenesis (short term), & Nonshivering Thermogenesis (seasonal) SNS & thyroid hormone increase in metabolic rate
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What is heat losing center?
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Stimulates Cutaneous Vasodilation increasing blood flow to body surface promotes heat loss. If that fails it triggers sweating & inhibits heat promoting
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What is Behavior Thermoregulation?
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Getting out of sun, removing heavy clothing
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