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188 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
sterilization |
destruction of all microbes, does not include things like prions |
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commercial sterilization |
sterilization that is applied specifically to things like foods, targets microbes like Clostridium botulinum spores |
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disinfection |
killing most, but not all pathogens |
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antisepsis |
disinfection of living tissue |
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sepsis |
bacterial contamination of living tissue |
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degerming |
physically removing things, like wiping with an alcohol wipe |
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sanitization |
lower microbe levels |
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-cide |
to kill |
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-static, -stasis |
unchanging, keeping microbes from multiplying |
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-emia |
of or in the blood |
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-uria |
of or in the urine |
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autoclave |
device that uses steam under pressure to sterilize materials |
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retort |
a container or furnace for carrying out a chemical process on a large or industrial scale |
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low temperature for microbial control |
more often bacteriastatic than bacteriacidal, sometimes slow freezing works to get crystals to form inside cells, killing them |
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desiccation for microbial control |
pulls water out of cells via osmosis, killing them or reducing their ability to reproduce |
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ionizing radiation for microbial control |
uses things like gamma rays and electron beams to sterilize medical equipment, food, etc by damaging the cell's DNA |
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Lysol |
a phenol/phenolic. disrupts the membranes of cells |
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iodine |
a halogen. works on proteins, inhibits enzymes or denatures proteins |
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chlorine |
a halogen. becomes HOCl (hydrochloric acid) when it comes in contact with water. works on proteins, inhibits enzymes or denatures proteins |
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alcohol |
disrupts proteins and lipids. most effective is 70% isoproponal alcohol because the denaturation of proteins works better in the presence of some water |
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heavy metals |
denatures proteins, inhibits enzymes |
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surfactant |
work as emulsifiers, make big blobs of fat into little blobs of fat. make it easier to physically wash things off |
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quaternary ammonium compounds |
break down membranes, emulsify. work on fungi, amoeba |
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aldehydes |
alkylate proteins and nucleic acids |
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peroxygens |
oxidize proteins |
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ozone O3 |
oxidize proteins |
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pathology |
study of disease |
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virulence |
strength, intensity |
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etiology |
cause, source |
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contamination |
organisms are present |
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infection |
contamination in the body |
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resident microbiota |
usually present, more likely to be harmless |
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transient microbiota |
picked up from the environment, sometimes present |
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parasitism |
symbiosis where one benefits and one is harmed |
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commensalism |
symbiosis where one benefits and one is unaffected, example skin mites |
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mutualism |
symbiosis where both benefit, example E. coli in our intestines |
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opportunistic pathogen |
will not cause a problem until the opportunity arises, such as resident microbiota are killed off and they are able to take hold |
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microbial antagonism |
competitive exclusion, resident microbiota keep out pathogens by competing for space and resources or by physically killing them |
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synergism |
one enhances/enables another, the sum of the two is greater when together than when separate |
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symptom |
something that the patient is aware of and can feel, example itching |
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sign |
something someone else can be aware of, example rash |
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syndrome |
combination of signs and symptoms seen together |
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sequela |
lasting effects from a disease, example paralysis after polio infection |
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communicable |
spreads from person to person, propegated |
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noncommunicable |
doesn't spread from person to person, but by other means, common source |
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contagious |
highly communicable |
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incidence |
number of new cases |
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prevalence |
how many people have the diease at one time |
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sporadic |
occurs occasionally |
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endemic |
always present at least at low levels |
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epidemic |
sudden, rapid increase in cases |
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pandemic |
world wide epidemic |
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herd immunity |
cannot spread through a population because so many are immune that if a single person is infected it is unlikely to spread |
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isolation |
the person who has the disease is kept away from others |
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quarantine |
those who have been exposed to and might have the disease are kept away from others |
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acute |
short and intense |
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chronic |
longer lasting, maybe not as intense, comes and goes |
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latent |
periods of time with no signs or symptoms and pathogen is not found in the blood, dormant |
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local infection |
confined to one area, close to where the pathogen entered the body |
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systemic infection |
widespread throughout the body |
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focal infection |
confined to one or a few areas, but not necessarily where it entered the body |
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primary infection |
the first infection |
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secondary infection |
second infection that is caused or enabled by the primary infection |
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superinfection |
normal microbes have been wiped out and there is an "open field" for pathogens, example C. diff |
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zoonosis |
a disease normally found in other species, but that humans can get |
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fomite |
an inanimate object, such as a drinking cup, that can serve to transmit disease |
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nosocomial |
acquired at a hospital |
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iatrogenic |
caused by medical care |
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cohort |
a population with a known exposure to a specific risk factor that is followed over time in a prospective study |
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placebo |
a mock drug, looks and tastes like the experimental drug but has no medicinal value |
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CDC |
Centers for Disease Control, based in Atlanta, Georgia. put out the morbidity and mortality weekly report, a list of number of people who are infected with and have died from certain diseases |
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WHO |
World Health Organization, Geneva |
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MSF |
Doctors Without Borders |
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notifiable disease |
group of diseases that are reported to the CDC by individual states. typically of relatively high incidence or otherwise a potential danger to public health |
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common-source epidemic |
an epidemic disease not spread from person to person, but by other means |
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propagated epidemic |
an epidemic disease spread person to person |
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stages in the progression of a disease |
1. incubation stage 2. prodromal stage 3. illness stage 4. decline stage 5. convalescence stage |
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incubation stage |
from the point of first infection until first signs and symptoms |
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prodromal stage |
signs and symptoms are mild |
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illness stage |
signs and symptoms become more severe, the disease reaches its peak |
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decline stage |
the patient is in recovery, signs and symptoms are lessening |
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convalescence stage |
recovery stage where the infection is gone and the patient is getting better |
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fulminating disease |
a disease that skips the prodromal stage, goes from incubation to illness stage. example food poisoning |
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portal of entry |
how the pathogen enters the host |
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leukocidins |
bacteria produce to kill white blood cells |
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hemolysins |
bacteria produce to break down red blood cells and obtain iron |
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coagulases |
bacteria produce to cause clotting |
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kinases |
bacteria produce to break up blood clots |
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hyaluronidases |
bacteria produce to break down proteins in connective tissue |
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collagenases |
bacteria produce to break down proteins in connective tissue |
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hypothermic factors |
bacteria produce to prevent fever as a nonspecific defense |
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lecithinases |
bacteria produce to break down lecithin, a lipid found in cell membranes, particularly in RBCs |
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proteases |
bacteria produce to break down proteins |
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siderophores |
bacteria produce to gather up iron |
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how does the bacteria manipulate the host's antigen-sampling system? |
macrophages break down cells, save the antigens, and present them to immune cells like helper T cells. this can be manipulated so bacteria can sneak into the immune system by being passed on instead of destroyed by the immune cells. |
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exotoxin |
mostly produced by gram positive bacteria. they are mostly proteins and act as good antigens that the host cell can recognize and form antibodies to. they act in a variety of ways such as blocking pathways in the nervous system, releasing toxins that cause rashes or creates pseudomembranes, or reducing cells' ability to hold water causing diarrhea |
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endotoxin |
contained within the bacteria, are exclusively found on the outer membrane of gram negative bacteria. lipopolysaccharide (LPS) A. they are poor antigens, the host does not readily form antibodies. there is little variety in symptoms, the reaction is usually based on the amount present. fever is a common reaction. |
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cytopathic effects of viruses |
stop macromolecule synthesis, the cell cannot do its own maintenance. cell membranes cannot be maintained. in lysosomes, this causes the release of digestive lysozymes. fills the cell with inclusion bodies full of virus parts. causes aggregation of cells and syncytium formation where the cells fuse together and form a nonfunctional multinucleated cell. change function relative to other cells, like communication via proteins. |
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how can viruses cause cancer? |
chromosomal changes in oncogenes, genes that code for proteins that tell the cell when and when not to divide. the raw materials are not there so the genes are built wrong. loss of contact inhibition, where cells normally stop multiplying when they become crowded. |
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pathological effects of fungi |
digestive enzymes are released, eat body cells for nutrients. prevent host protein synthesis, interferes with antibody production. release allergens. act as carcinogens. release neurotoxins. |
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pathological effects of helminthes |
release digestive enzymes. block passages. burrow through tissue, visceral larval migrans. produce toxic waste and become toxic waste when they die. eat the host's food. |
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poisonous algae generally release what kind of toxins? |
neurotoxins |
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eukaryotic parasite infection difficulty |
similar to our own cells, harder to design something without side effects |
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intracellular bacterial infection difficulty |
since it is inside the cell, the drug has to get through the barrier of the cell membrane |
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viral infection difficulty |
they are intracellular and become part of the cell, have to find a way to contain the infection as opposed to destroying the virus |
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therapeutic index |
lowest toxic dose divided by the typical therapeutic dose. want this number to be high |
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why don't drugs which inhibit bacterial protein synthesis also inhibit the host's protein synthesis? |
bacterial ribosomes differ from human ribosomes. this would only possibly have an effect on mitochondrial ribosomes which are the same as bacterial. drugs target a protein synthesis that humans do not have, like folate for folic acid synthesis. |
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bacitracin |
cell wall synthesis inhibitor. gram positive bacteria |
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cephalosporin |
cell wall synthesis inhibitor. gram negative bacteria, resistant to penicillinase, has a broader spectrum |
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chloramphenicol |
protein synthesis inhibitor, keeps ribosomes from coming together. broad spectrum, can suppress bone marrow activity, so must be careful about anemia. |
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penicillin |
cell wall synthesis inhibitor. naturally occurring works exclusively on gram positive bacteria. synthetic can work on gram negative. |
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polymixin B |
damages plasma membrane. gram negative bacteria. |
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quinolines |
inhibit nucleic acid synthesis. easily get into tissues, stops DNA replication by stopping the DNA from coming apart. can inhibit cartilage development, careful in pregnant women and children. |
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streptomycin |
protein synthesis inhibitor. keeps ribosomes from coming together. |
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sulfa drugs |
enzyme inhibitors. stops the synthesis of folic acid. |
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tetracycline |
protein synthesis inhibitor. broad spectrum. easily enters cells, widely used. concern for abx resistance. |
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vancomycin |
inhibits cell wall synthesis. used for MRSA. can cause damage to blood vessels. |
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imidazoles |
anti-fungal that stop sterol synthesis, destroying and keeping the fungi cell membrane from being made |
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griseofulvin |
anti-fungal that stops mitosis, cell division |
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flucytosine |
anti-fungal that is anti-nucleic acid synthesis. stops DNA and RNA, stopping reproduction and protein synthesis. |
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amantadine |
antiviral that keeps the virus from getting into the cell or causes uncoating of the virus if it does get into the cell. |
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acyclovir |
antiviral that is a nucleoside analog, gives the virus raw materials that do not work. guanosine analog. used for herpes. |
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gancyclovir |
antiviral that is a nucleoside analog, gives the virus raw materials that do not work. guanosine analog. used for HIV. |
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zyclovadine (AZT) |
antiviral that is an enzyme inhibitor. inhibits reverstranscriptase in HIV. |
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nevirapine |
antiviral that is an enzyme inhibitor. inhibits reversetranscriptase. |
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tamiflu |
antiviral that targets the N spike, keeping the virus from exiting the cell. |
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choloroquine |
antimalarial, targets Plasmodium sp. |
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quinacrine |
anti-giardia |
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praziquantel |
antiplatyhemlminthic |
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mebandazole |
antinematodal |
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pyrimethamine |
anti-toxoplasma and antimalarial |
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artemisinin |
antimalarial |
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ways in which a microbe may be resistant to an antibiotic |
the microbe destroys the drug, example penicillinase. rapid efflux of the drug where the drug is pumped right out of the cell. preventing entry of the drug into the cell or from reaching the target. changing or eliminating the drug's target. producing more of the target, overwhelming the drug. invading new areas of the host where the drug does not go or target. |
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circumstances which may increase the incidence of antibiotic resistance |
overuse by physicians, broad spectrum drugs. inappropriate patient demand. failure to complete treatment. non-prescribed use. long term, low dose treatment. use in food for livestock, chicken and cattle. movement due to human travel or trade. use by immunosuppressd patients. |
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skin |
mechanical/physical nonspecific defense. dry - discourages microbial growth. slightly acidic. contains keratin, a toughening protein. cells are tightly packed. contain Langherhans cells in the deeper layers that are phagocytic. |
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mucous membranes |
mechanical/physical nonspecific defense. mucus traps microbes. contains defensin, a protein that can poke holes in microbial cells. |
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sebum |
chemical nonspecific defense. traps microbes. cuts off oxygen supply. slightly acidic. |
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lysozymes |
chemical nonspecific defense. digestive enzymes that are also in secretions such as tears, saliva, and sweat. |
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gastric juice |
chemical nonspecific defense. HCl and pepsin, a protease. greet incoming microbes with an acid bath. |
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transferrin |
chemical nonspecific defense. in the blood, ties up iron to keep away from bacteria. works against siderophores. |
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fever |
prostaglandins work on temperature center in hypothalamus. causes leukocytes to be more active. interferes with microbial proteins. makes iron less available. |
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inflammation |
vasodilation, as vessels widen, fluid leaks out into surrounding tissue. pressure keeps damage local. allows immune cells to get into tissue. |
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defensin |
a protein that pokes holes in microbial cells |
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opsonization |
the complement makes it easier for the phagocyte to attach |
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cytolysis |
the complement forms pores in the microbe, causing it to lyse by either having fluid leak out of or into the cell |
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alpha and beta interferon |
released by virally infected cells, causing nearby cells to create antiviral proteins. also can double back onto the cell to cause apoptosis. |
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erythrocytes |
red blood cells, important in oxygen transport, hemoglobin and iron |
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platelets |
cell fragments that function in clotting |
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eosinophils |
granulocytes phagocytic, secrete toxins, antimacroparacitic |
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basophils |
granulocytes secrete histamine |
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neutrophils |
granulocytes phagocytic, usually first response to bacterial infection |
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monocytes |
agranulocytes large phagocytes, macrophages |
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dendritic cells |
antigen presentin cells. take in antigens, process them, then present them on their cell surface for recognition by other immune cells |
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lymphocytes |
agranulocytes specific immunity. react to antigens. B-cells and T-cells |
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vasodilation |
widening of blood vessels. important in inflammation. allows vessels to become leaky, causing pressure in the tissues and allowing leukocytes into the tissues. |
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edema |
an excess of watery fluid collecting in the cavities or tissues of the body |
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histamine |
a substance that plays a major role in many allergic reactions, dilating blood vessels and making the vessel walls abnormally permeable |
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toll-like receptors and NOD receptors |
sometimes residual bodies are left over after a phagocyte engulfs and kills a cell. if the materials in the residual body are nonspecific, like peptidoglycan, they can activate NOD receptors inside the cell or toll-like receptors out of the cell that cause an increase in macrophage activity. |
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active immunity |
the body creates antibodies against an antigen |
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passive immunity |
antibodies are given, not created |
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natural immunity |
antibodies are either created or acquired naturally, as a response to an antibody or passed from mother to child |
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artificial immunity |
antibodies are either created or acquired in a nonnatural way, such as a response to antigens from a vaccine or antibodies injected in anti-serum |
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antigen
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a foreign substance, usually a protein but sometimes a polysaccharide. recognized by the body as foreign
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antibody
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produced by B-cells to attach to antigen. Y shaped, made of four chains, two heavy and two light. the variable regions of the chain are the antigen binding sites. the other side is called the stem and consists of the constant regions. |
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IgG
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gamma globulin. most commonly found in blood serum, leaes the blood easily. goes after a variety of pathogens: viruses, bacteria, fungi.. |
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IgM
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a pentamer, stems link together. clumps antigens.
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IgA
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found in secretions: milk, saliva, tears. keeps antigens from sticking to anything.
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IgD
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on B-cells, a protein in the cell membrane. "membrane-bound antibody"
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IgE
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stem interacts with mast cells and basophils, leads to inflammation and histamine release. levels rise with allergies
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primary response
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the initial response to a pathogen. the response is slow and less intense. first IgM antibodies have a small spike, then shortly after IgG antibodies have a small spike. during primary response, cells have to be activated to produce memory cells and active cells. |
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seconday reponse
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rapid and intense response to second exposure to a pathogen. memory cells are already primed to respond and do not need to be activated. IgM antibodies have a small spike and IgG antibodies have a large spike. |
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T-dependant antigen
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B-cell will only react to the antigen if stimulated by the helper T cell
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T-independant antigen |
B-cell can recognize the antigen on its own
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How does a B-cell respond to an antigen? |
when a B-cell encounters an antigen, it begins to divide into two types of cells. memory cells function to stand ready to recognize future infections and are full of membrane bound antibodies. plasma cells have a lot of rough ER, which synthesize antibodies. the cell will eventually self destroy via apoptosis.
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What are things that an antibody may do to an antigen?
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neutralize the antibody, interfering with its normal function cause agglutination of antigens, making it easier for phagocytes to destroy them activate complement opsonization, makes it easier for the phagocyte to attach antigen-dependent cell-mediated immunity, attracts T cells antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity, attracts NK cells and phagocytic cells |
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How does a helper T cell work?
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antigen presenting cells take in the bacteria, destroys them, and saves the antigens in a vessicle. the antigens are presented on the cell membrane, along with an MCH2 complex. the helper T cells (CD4) recognize the antigen and MHC and become activated to divide into memory cells and activated helper T cells. the activated helper T cells activate the B cells and attract phagocytes by releasing cytokines.
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Hoew doe a cytotoxic T cell work?
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a cytotoxic T cell recognizes the MHC1 complex and the associated foregin cell fragments (peptides) on infected cells. it divides into memory cells and active cytotoxic T cells. the active T cells release perforins that will poke holes in the membrane of the infected cell and lymphotoxins to kill the cell.
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regulatory (suppressor) T cells
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shut down the immune response, release cytokines
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natural killer cells
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probably a type of T cell. seem to recognize the absence of MHC proteins or an imbalance on the cell membrane. similar to cytotoxic T cell mechanism, perforins or lymphotoxins. can be set off by antibodies attached to antigens on body cells.
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vaccine
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a substance used to stimulate the production of antibodies and provide immunity against one or several diseases, prepared from the causative agent of a disease
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attenuated whole-agent
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alive, but weakened. should not be able to infect. MMR vaccine
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inactivated whole-agent |
dead or made unable to reproduce. salk polio vaccine
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toxoids
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an inactive tozins, denatured protein. intact enough to act as an antigen. tetanus shot.
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subunit vaccine
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pieces of the antigen. hepatitis B, pertussis
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conjugated vaccine
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antigen attached to a polysaccharide. seems to work better with children. Hib, H-influenza
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nucleic acid vaccine
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plasmid, a little loop of DNA with a gene for making the antigen. supposed to stimulat T cells. Japanese encephilitis. does not have to be refridgerated
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variolation |
deliberately being exposed to small pox in hopes to get a mild case and become immune
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adjuvant
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something added to a vaccine to make it work
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