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150 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What is the "Powerhouse" of the Cell & What does it do?
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The Mitochondrion. Converts Oxygen and Glucose into energy called ATP. Adeno Triphosphate.
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What makes up the Human Cell?
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Cytoplasm
Organells Nucleus Endoplasmic Reticulum Golgi Apparatus Mitochondion Lysosomes Perkosomes |
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Endoplasmic Reticulum
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A network of small channels within the cell.
*Rough-Synthesis of Proteins *Smooth Synthesis of Lipids & Carbohydrates. |
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Golgi Apparatus
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Located near the Nucleus. Resposible for synthesis and packaging of secretions such as mucus and enzymes.
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DNA
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Deoxyribonucleic acid. large molecule nucleic acid found mainly in the chomosomes of the nucleus. Carrier of genetic information. Must be constantly copied and transferred to the cells.
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Organelle
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Functional units of the cell.
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Lysosomes
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Contain digestive enzymes. Functions include protection against disease & production of nutrients, breaking down bacteria & organic debris & releasing unusable sugars & amino acids.
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Perkosomes
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Similar to Lysosomes. Abundant in the liver. Absorb & neutralize toxins such as alcohol.
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Chromatin
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Tangles of Chromosome filaments containing DNA. Located in the Nucleus.
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Differentiation
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Causes Cells to be Specialized
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7 Major Functions of Cells
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Movement: Performed by Muscle Cells
Conductivity: Function of Nerve Cells Metabolic Absorption: Take in nutrients that pass through the body Secretion: (glands) hormones, mucus, sweat, Saliva Excretion: breakdown nutrients & expel waste Respiration: take in oxygen Reproduction: enlarge, divide & reproduce themselves. |
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Tissues
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A group of cells that perform a similar function
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Epithelial Tissue
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Most Prolific. Line inside and outside of body.
Functions: Secretion, Absorption, Diffusion, Filtration Types: Skin, Mucus Membranes, Lining of intestinal tract |
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Muscle Tissue
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Capability of contaction when stimulated
3 types: 1)Cardiac: spontaneous without stimulation 2) Skeletal- voluntary, striated 3) Smooth: involuntary (intestines, blood vessels) |
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Cell Hierarchy
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Cells-Tissues-Organs-Organ Systems-Organism
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Components of the Cardiovascular System
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Heart(pump), Blood Vessels, Blood
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Components of the Respiratory System
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Lungs, Nose, Larynx, Pharynx, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Pleura, Alveoli, Diaphragm
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Components of the Gastrointestinal System
(GI) |
Kidneys, Ureters, Bladder, Urethra
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Components of the Reproductive System
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Female: Ovaries, Falopian Tubes, Uterus, Vagina
Male: Testes, Prostate, Seminal Vesicles, vas deferens, penis |
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Components of the Nervous System
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Brain, Spinal Cord, All peripheral nerves
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Components of the Endocrine System
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Pituitary Gland, Pineal Gland, Pancreas, Testes, Ovaries, Adrenal, Thyroid, Parathyroid
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Components of the Lyphatic System
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Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Lyphatic Channels, Thoracic Duct, Lymph Fluid
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Components of the Musculoskeletal System
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Primary skeletal muscles, bones, cartilage, connective tissue
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Homeostasis and Energy
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A significant amount of energy is needed to maintain the order (homeostasis)that is evident in structures (anatomy) and functions (physiology) of the organism
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Kinetic Energy
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Necessary to maintain homeostasis, obtained by breaking down biochemical bnds of cells and tissues.
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Anabolism
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Building up of biochemical substances to produce energy
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Catabolism
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Breaking down of biochemical substances to produce energy
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Metabolism
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The total changes that take place during physiological processes
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Disease
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When something interferes with the electrochemical messages cells send to each other.
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Endocrine Glands
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a.k.a. Ductless Glands. Pituitary, Thyroid, Parathyroid & Adrenal, islets of langerhorns, testes, ovaries. Secrete hormones into the circulatory system where they travel to target organs or tissue.
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Exocrine Glands
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Secrete sweat, saliva, mucus, and digestive enzymes onto the epithelial surface through ducts.
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Signaling
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Intercellular Communication
endocrine paracrine autocrine synaptic |
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Endocrine Signaling
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Hormones
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Paracrine Signaling
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Non-endocrine, Non-hormonal.
Involves chemical mediators by certain cells that act only on nearby cells |
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Autocrine Signaling
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Cells secrete substances that may act uop themselves
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Synaptic Signaling
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Cels secrete neurotransmitters.
ex: norepinephrine, acetylcholamine, seratonin, dopamine. Transmit across synapses (connection between nerve cells) |
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receptors
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Receive hormones & neurotransmitters, Chemoreceptors respond to chemical stimuli. ex: brain respond to ↑ CO₂
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Baroreceptors
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Respind o pressure changes. Located in Aortic Arch & Carotid Sinuses along artery. Sences to change in bp. Causes cardiac center in Medula to alter heart rate
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Alpha & Beta Adrenic Receptor
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On the surface of the cells of the Bronchi, Heart, Blood Vessels. Respond to neurotransmitters & medications. Causes a variety of cardiovascular & respiratory responses.
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Afferent & Efferent
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Afferent: Move toward the center of an organ or tissue
Efferent: Move away from the center of an organ or tissue |
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Interaction of Systems
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Stressors on a body system are INPUTS.
Response to the INPUT is the EFFECTOR/OUTPUT |
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Negative Feedback Loop
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Body mechanisma that work to reverse or compensate for a pathophysiological process, or to reverse any physiological process.
When the output of a system corrects the situation that created the input Feedback negates the input caused by the original stressor |
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Decompensation
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When output of effector organse are ineffective in correcting the input condition.
Feedback system doesn't or can't restore homeostasis |
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Positive Feedback
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Enhances rather than negates the efects of input. ex: follicular development in females.
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Control Systems
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nervous system & Endocrine system work together to maintain homeostasis
Nervous system response in rapid Endocrine response in longer |
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Pathology
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Study of Disease and its Cause
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Pathopysiology
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The physiology of disordered function
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Cellular Adaptation
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Ability of body to change to meet its needs. Adaptation to external stressors result in alterations in structure & function at the cellular level.
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Atrophy
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Decrease in cell size. May occur from disease, decrease in nutrients, ischemia, decrease blood supply
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Hypertrophy
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increase in cell size to meet increasing demands. Most commonly affects cells of heart & kidneys.
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Hyperplasia
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Increase in number of cells, resulting from increased workload. Also includes Mitosis (DNA Dup.)in nucleus. Very commonly seen in Hypertrophy.
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Metaplasia
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Replacement of one type of cell by another type of cell. (not normal). Commonly seen in respiratory tract as a result from ciggarette smoke. high risk of malignancy.
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Dysplasia
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Changing structure of cells. Change in cell size, shape or appearance caused by an external stressor. High risk of malignancy. Cells must be killed.
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Cellular Injury
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Cell injury can change cell function. 7 most common:
Hypoxia, Chemical, Infectious, Immunologic/Inflammatory, injurious Physical, Injurious Nutritional, injurious genetic. |
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Cell injury: Hypoxia
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Most Commin cause of injury.
-Lack of environmental oxygen -occluded airway -COPD -CHF -Arterial Blockage (ischemia) |
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Cell Injury: Infectious
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Pathogens; Disease & infection causing bacteria, viruses, fungi & parasites
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Virulence
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Power of Microbe to cause disease.
Dependent on: Pathogens ability to contain or destroy cells. Ability to produce toxins. Ability to produce hypersensitivity (allergic reactions) |
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Pathogen vs. Body
What are the 3 outcomes |
1. pathogen wins
2. pathogen and body battle to a draw 3. body defeats pathogen |
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Cellular Swelling
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Caused by injury or a change to the permeablilty of the cell membrane with resulting inability to maintain stable intra and extracellular fluid and electrolyte levels.
Most frequent cause of injury. Will eventually rupture (lyse) and release chemical mediator which will can cause chemical reaction. |
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Fatty Change
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Lipids invade area of injury. An ominous sign of inpending cellular destruction. Commonly occur in Liver, Kineys and Heart.
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Cortisone/Cortisol
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A steroid hormone made in the liver to treat inflammation. Can cause cells to retain fat.
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Signs and Symptoms of Cellular Injury
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Fatigue/Malaise
Altered Appetite (increase or decrease) Fever increased heart Rate (with fever and pain) Lab tests may reveal increased white blood cell count. |
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Apoptis
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Response in which an injured cell releases enzymes that engulf and destroy itself
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Necrosis
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Cell Death. 4 types:
Coagulative Liquefactive Caseous Fatty gangrenous |
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Coagulative necrosis
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Generally from Hypoxia. albumin becomes opaque like an egg white. Commonly occurs in the kidneys, heart, adrenal glands.
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Liquefactive necrosis
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Cells become liquid and contained in walled cysts. Common in ischemic death of neurons and brain cells
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Caseous necrosis
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Common in TB take on cottage cheese like consistency.
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Fatty necrosis
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Common in Breast and Abdomen structures. Fatty acids combine with calcium, solium & magnesium ions to create soap. Soponification. The dead tissue is opaque and white.
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Gangrenous necrosis
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Dry Gangrene: affects skin, dry, shrunken. Common in lower ext.
Wet Gangrene: liquefactive, usually internal organs Gas Gangrene: Result of bacterial infection. Gas bubbles in cells. Can cause death from shock. |
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Acid-Base balance Formula
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H+ + HCO3 ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H2O + CO2
Hydrogen ion + bicarbonate ion ↔ carbonic acid ↔ Water + carbon dioxide |
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Acid base Values
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Ph= 7.35 - 7.45 (↑Alk./↓ Acid)
Bicarbonate (base/metabolic)= 18 - 24 (↑Alk./↓ Acid) Co2= 35 - 45 (acid/respiratory)(↑Acid/↓ Alk.) |
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Hydrogen H+
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Cells produce Hydrogen (when cells break down they release more H) increase in H causes body to be metabolic.
20:1 = 20(HCO3):1(H+) |
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Buffer System
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Body tries to buffer system out. The fastest mechanism
Two components of this system are bicarbonate ion HCO3- and carbonic acid H2CO3 and are normally in equilibrium with hydrogen H+ |
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Respiratory mechanism
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If buffer system cannot balance system
2nd buffer system Increased respirations cause increase elimination of CO2 which causes a decrease in hydrogen ions and an increase in pH. |
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Kidney Mechanism
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Last buffer system. seen in extreme illness.
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Metabollic Acidosis
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Acidity caused by an increase in acid due to production on metabolism or from causes such as voliting, diarrhea, diabetes or medication
↑H+ + HCO3 → ↑ H2CO3 → H2O + ↑CO2 |
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Metabollic Alkalosis
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Alkalinity caused by an increase in plasma bicarbonate resulting from causes including diuresis, vomiting, or ingestion of too much sodium bicarbonate.
↓H+ + HCO3 → ↓ H2CO3 → H2O + ↓CO2 |
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Respiratory Acidosis
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Acidity caused by abnormal retention of carbon dioxide resulting from impaired ventillation.
↓Respiration = ↑CO2 + H2O → ↑ H2CO3 → ↑H+ + HCO3 |
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Respiratory Alkalosis
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Alkalinity caused by excessive elimination of carbon dioxide resulting from increased respirations.
↑respirations = ↓CO2 + H2O → ↓H2CO3 → ↓H+ + HCO3 |
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Where Water is Found and its percentages
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Intracellular Fluid = 75%
Extracellular Fluid = 25% Intravascular = 7.5% Interstitial = 17.5% |
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Dehydration and its causes
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Decrease in body water
GI Loss (vomiting) insensible Loss (perspiration) Sweating Internal Loss (3rd space; peritonitis, pancreatitis, bowel obstruction) Plasma Loss: burns, surgical drains & fistulas |
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Overhydration
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Retention of abnormally high amount of body fluid.
Major sign is edema. in severe casses, heart failure may occur. |
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Electrolytes
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Substance that, in water, separates into electrically charged particles
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Sodium Na+
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Most prevalent Cation in extracellular fluid.
Water follows sodium. Important in transmission of neuron impulses. Hypernatremic, Hyponatremic |
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Potassium K
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Most prevelent intracellular cation.
Important for muscle contraction. hyperkalemia, hypokalemia. |
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Calcium Ca++
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Works with solium.
Allows solium to do its job. Helps cells to work appropriately. Hypercalcemia, Hypocalcemia |
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Magnesium Mg++
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Closely associated with phosphate.
Hypermagnesemia, hypomagnesemia. |
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Cloride Cl+
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Negative charge balances the positive charge of cations.
Major role in fluid balance and renal function. Associated with Solium. |
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Bicarbonate HCO3
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Bicarbonate is the principal buffer of the body. It neutralizes the highly acidic hydrogen ion.
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Phosphate HCO4
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important in body energy stores. Closely associated with magnesium in renal function. Acts as a buffer primarily in the intracellular space most like bicarbonate.
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Isotonic
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Equal in concentration of solute molecules, solutions may be isotonic to eachother.
Body always works to keep itselve isotonic. |
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Hypertonic
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Having greater concentration of solute molecules; one solution may be hypertonic to another
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Hypotonic
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having a lesser concentration of solute molecules; one solutions may be hypotonic to another
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Osmotic Gradient
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The difference in concentration between solutions on opposite sides of a semipermeable membrane
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Diffusion
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The movement through a membrane from an area of greater concentration to an area of lesser concentration
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Osmosis
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Movement of water from higher concentration to lower concentration.
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Solutes
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Because water is a solute, it moves from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher concentration
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Osmolity
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Value of water
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Active Transport
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Movement of a substance across the cell membrane against the osmotic gradient (toward the side of higher concentration of that substance)
Faster that diffusion. Requires energy |
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Facillitated Diffusion
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Certain molecules can move across the cell membrane with assistance of "helper proteins". Ex: glucose.
Depending on the substance, this process may or may not require energy. |
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Osmotic Pressure
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The pressure exerted by the concentration of solutes on one side of a membrane that, if hypertonic, tends to pull water from the other side of the membrane
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Oncotic Force
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A form of osmotic pressure exerted by the large protein particles, or colloids, present in blood plasma.In the capillaries, the plasma colloids tend to pull water from the interstitial space across the capillary membrane into the capillary. Oncotic force is also called colloid osmotic pressure
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Hydrostatic Pressure
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Blood pressure or force against vessel walls created by the heartbeat. Hysrostatic pressure tends to force water out of the capillaries into the interstitial space.
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Filtration
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Movement of water out of the plasma across the capillary membrance into the interstitial space.
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Net Filtration
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The total loss of water from blood plasma across the capillary membrane into the interstitial space. Normally net filtration is Zero.
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Edema and causes
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Excess fluid in the interstitial space. Severe edems can result in dehydration.
Caused by: a decrease in plasma oncotic force. An increase in hydrostatic pressure. Increase capillary permeability. Lymphatic Channel obstruction |
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Blood Components
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Red blood Cells 45%
Plasma 54% White blood Cells & Platelets 1% |
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Hematocrit
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The percentage of blood occupied by erythrocytes
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plasma
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The liquid part of the blood
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Erithrocytes
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Red blood cells; which contain hemoglobin, which transports oxygen to the cells
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leukocytes
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White Blood Cells which play a key role in the immune system and inflammatory responses.
Types: Monocyte Eosinophil Basophil Neutrophil Lymphocytes Platelets |
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Thrombocytes
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Platelets, which are important in blood clotting
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Transfusion reaction
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occur when there is a discrepancy between blood type of the pt. and blood being transfused.
A rapid IV fliud infusion should be started. S&S: Fever, Chills, Hives, Hypotension, palpitations, tachycardia, flushing, headaches, LOC, N/V, SOB. |
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HBOCs
hemoglobin-based oxygen carrying solutions |
IV fluids that have the capability to transport oxygen and are compatible with all blood types. (not used in Prehospital care)
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Colloids
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Substances such as proteins or starches consisting of large molecule aggregates that disperse evenly within a liquid without forming a true solution.
Not used in Prehospital setting |
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Crystalloids
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Substances capable of crystallization. In solution, unlike colloids, they can diffuse through a membrane such as a capillary wall.
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Tonicity
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Solute concentration or osmotic pressure relative to the blood plasma or body cells
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Effects of IV fluids on red blood cells
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Hypertonic (dextran/plasmanate)cell becomes crenated (shrunken.
Isotonic (NaCl, Lactaed Ringers) Normal cell. Hypotonic (D5W) Swollen, Lysed. |
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Most Commonly Used Solutions in Prehospital Care
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Lactated Ringers: Isotonic
NaCl (normal saline): Isotonic D5W (dextrose in water): Hypotonic |
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How many chromosomes in a human somatic cell?
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46 Chromosomes, 23 pairs. 23 from mother, 23 from father. Sex cells only contain 23 chromosomes.
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Clinical factors of Disease
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Host: congenital
Agent: pathogen Environment: lifestyle, culture, demographics |
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Epidemiology Factors of Disease
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incidence:number of new cases in a given period.
Prevalence: proportion of the total population. Motality: the rate of death from the disease |
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Morbidity
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An illness or abnormall condition or quality.
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Immunologic Disorders
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More prevalent among those with a family history of the disorder but also involves other risk factors. ex: Rheumatic Fever, Allergies, Asthma
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Cancer
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A wide variety of family history and environmental factors are included among risk factors.
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Endocrine Disorder
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Most common is Diabetes. Both Family Hx, and Lifestyle.
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Hematologic Disorders
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Genetic factors. ex: Hemophilia, Hemochromotosis.
Anemia: not genetic. |
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Rheumatic Disorder
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Gout- may be both genetic and environmental. Sever arthritic pain caused by crystals in the joints. High levels of uric acid.
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Hypoperfusion
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Shock is a condition that is progessive and fatal if not corrected. inadequate perfusion of the body tissues.
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Shock
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Hypoprofusion: occurs 1st at the cellular level. If allowed to progress, the tissues, organs, organ systems and ultimately the entire organism is affected.
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Preload
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Amount of blood delivered to the heart during diastole. Depends on venous return.
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Cardiac Contractile Force
Frank Starling's Mechanism |
The greater the volume of preload, the more the ventricles are stretched. The greater the stretch, the greater the contraction.
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Catecholamines
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Epinephrine and norepinephine, hormones that strongly affect the nervous and cardiovascular systems, metabolic rate, temp., and smooth muscle.
Controlled by the sympathetic nervous system |
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Afterload
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The resistence a contraction of the heart must overcome in order to eject blood; in cardiac physiology, defined as the tension of cardiac muscle during systole.
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Cardiac Output
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The amount of blood pumped by the heart in 1 minute (computed as stroke volume (sv) x heart rate (hr))
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Peripheral Vascular Resistence
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The resistence of the vessels to the flo of vlood: increased when the vessels constrict, decreased when the vessels relax.
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Compensatory mechanism
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the body keeps bp relatively constat using baroreceptors.
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Precapillary Sphincter
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Located at the origin of the capillary. Responds to local tissue conditions such as acidosis and hypoxia and opens as more artial blood is needed.
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postcapillary Sphincter
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opens when blood is to be emptied into the venous system
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Partial Pressure of oxygen
PaO2 |
Present in air in the alveoli of the lungs is greater that the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood within the pulmonary circulation.
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Thoracic Duct
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Common trunk of many lymphatic vessels in the body. Begins high in the abd. enters the chest through the diaphram and goes up into the neck.
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Aerobic Metabolism
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The second stage of metabolism, requiring the presence of oxygen in which the breakdown of glucose (Krebs cycle) yieldsa high amount of energy (ATP)
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Anaerobic Metabolism
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The 1st stage of metabolism hich does not require oxygen, in which the breakdown of glucose (glycolosis) produces pyruvic acid and yields very little energy.
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Fick Principle
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The movement and utilization of oxygen by the body is dependent upon:
-Adequate concentration of inspirted oxygen. -appropriate movement of O2 across alveolar/capillary. -Adequate number of RBC to carry the O2 -Proper tissue perfusion _Efficiant off-Loading of O2 at the tissue level. |
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Stages of Shock
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Compensated
Decompensated Irreversible |
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Compensated Shock
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Early stage of shock during which the body's compensatory mechanisms are able to maintain normal perfusion.
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Decompensated Shock
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Advanced stages of shock when the body's compensatory mechanism are no longer able to maintain normal perfusion; also called progressive shock
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irreversable Shock
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Shock that as progressed so far that no medical intervention can reverse the condition and death is inevitable. Clayton stages extremely aggressive intervention may reverse shock (very rare)
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Types of Shock
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Cardiogenic
Hypovolemic neurogenic Anaphylactic Septic |
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Cardiogenic Shock
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Shock caused by insufficient cardiac output; the inability of the heart to pump enough blood to perfuse all parts of the body.
usually result of severe left ventrical failure secondary to AMI or CHF. |