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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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1. amygdala:
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1. two groups of nuclei located in the temporal lobes, Part of the limbic system, crucial to emotion
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* basal ganglia
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1. nuclei in the base of the brain involved selecting and mediating movements
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brainstem:
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* trunk of the brain to spinal cord, includes medulla, pons, and mid brain. Main motor and sensory innervation to the face and neck via cranial nerves.
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caudate nucleus
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* : part of the striatum
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central sulcus:
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* fold in cortex that separates the parietal lobe from the frontal lobe
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central nervous system: |
* consists of brain and spinal cord. Coordinating system of body |
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cerebellum
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* : small brain behind cerebrum that helps regulate posture, balance and coordination
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cerebrum
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* : With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body.
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cingulate cortex:
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* part of limbic cortex, makes up the longitudinal fissure, important in combining top-down and bottom up information to guide actions
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cortex:
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* gray part of the cerebrum
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cranial nerves:
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* 12 pairs that arise from brainstem.
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dentate gyrus:
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* part of the hippocampus containing nerve cells that receive input from the entorhinal cortex
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dorsal horn:
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* back part of the spinal cord, where nerve fibres (pain) merge with spinal cord
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dorsolateral prefrontal cortex:
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* area of the frontal lobe concerned with planning, organization and other executive functions of cognition
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dorsal route
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* : pathway in visual system that connects visual cortex to the parietal lobe
- (where) - automatic, subconscious control - faster than ventral |
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dura matter:
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* top of 3 layer of tissue separating the brain from the skull* Allows flow of CSF;
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fissure
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* : deep cleft/sulcus on the surface of the brain
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fornix
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* : arching band of nerve tissue that carries signals around the limbic system from the hippocampus at one end to the mammillary bodies at the other
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fovea
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* : central part of the retina composed of densely packed ones. Highest visual acuity
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frontal lobe
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* responsible for thinking making judgements, planning decisions making and conscious control, higher center
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fusiform gyrus:
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* cortical bulge on the underside of the temporal lobe, important for object and face recognition
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glial cells
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* : housekeeping functions in the brain
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gray matter:
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* made up of densely packed cell bodies as seen in the cortex
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gyrus
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* : bulges of tissue on the surface of the brain
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hemisphere (left and right):
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* half of the brain
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inferior colliculi:
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* principal midbrain nuclei of the auditory pathway
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insula
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* : brain region that lies between temporal and frontal lobes
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lateral geniculate nucleus:
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* nucleus in the thalamus that acts as a relay in visual pathway
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limbic system:
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* brain structures lying along the inner border of the cortex, crucial for emotion, memory, and mediating consciousness
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lobe:
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* four main areas of the brain (temporal, parietal, frontal, occipital)
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longitudinal fissure
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* : groove that divides the left and right cerebrum
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maxillary sinus
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* : The pyramid-shaped maxillary sinus is the largest of the paranasal sinuses, and drains into the middle meatus of the nose.
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medulla:
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* maintains, vital body processes such as breathing and heart rate
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minenges:
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* 3 layers of protective tissue between brain and skull
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motor cortex:
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* contains neurons that send signals to the muscles
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motor neuron
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* : infiltrates muscles and causes contraction or stretch
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neocortex:
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* outer layer of the brain (cerebral cortex)
* center of higher perceptual/cognitive processes, attention, focus and concentration, memory, decision making, problem solving |
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nervous system:
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* cells that connect to the brain and extend throughout the entire body.
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occipital lobe
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* : visual processing
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olfactory nerve
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* : smell
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optic chiasm
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* : the point of crossing of the optic nerves from each eye
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optic nerve:
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* cary signals from the retinal ganglia to the brain
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optic radiation
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* : is a collection of axons from relay neurons in the lateral geniculate nucleus of the thalamus carrying visual information to the visual cortexparietal lobe
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parietal lobe:
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* spatial computation, body orientation and attention, sense of touch
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peripheral nervous system:
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* includes all nerves and neurons outside spinal cord and brain.
- 12 CN - 31 SN - afferent and efferent division |
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pia matter
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* : innermost layer of the meninges, thin elastic tissue covering brain
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pineal gland:
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* near thalamus, produces melatonin, regulates sleep wake cycle
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pons:
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* part of the hindbrain lying in front of the cerebellum
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prefrontal cortex
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* : part of the frontal cortex involved in planning and higher level cognition
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premotor area:
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* frontal cortex, planning movements
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primary cortex
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* : first receives sensory info from organs
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putamen
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* : part of the striatum, regulates movement and procedural learning
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reticular formation
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* : complex area in brainstem contains various nuclei that affect arousal, sensation, motor function and heartbeat and breathing
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striate cortex:
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* part of visual cortex characterized by visually distinct strips of cells
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striatum
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* : structure in basal ganglia composed of caudate and putamen
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superior colliculus:
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* nuclei in midbrain that play a part in relaying visual info
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Sylvian fissure:
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deep sulcus separates frontal and temporal cortex
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somatosensory cortex:
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* area of the brain concerned with receiving and processing info about body sensations (pain and touch)
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superior temporal sulcus:
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* separating the superior temporal gyrus from the middle temporal gyrus in the temporal lobe of the brain.
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supplementary motor cortex or area:
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* front of motor cortex involved in planning under internal control (actions done from memory)
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temporal lobe
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* : concerned with hearing, language and memory, emotion
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thalamus
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* gray matter
* key relay station for sensory information flowing into brain * integrates all sensory info |
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ventral route:
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* pathway in visual system concerned with recognition of objects and faces
* (what), * conscious route * slower than dorsal * (occipital >> temporal >> frontal) |
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V1:
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* registers all visual stimuli
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V2
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* : relay visual stimuli to…V3-V8
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V3
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* : responds to angles, symmetry, combines motion and direction
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V4
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* : responds to colour, orientation, form and movement
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V5
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* : responds to direction of movement
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V6:
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* detects motion in periphery of visual field
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V7
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* : perception of symmetry, depth perception
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V8:
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* probably processes colour
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The Optic Pathway -
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Retina >> Optic tract > Optic Chiasm > Thalamus > Optic radiations > Occipital Lobe
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information from the right side of the visual field falls on the ___ halves of the retina and ends up in the ___ hemisphere
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left, left |
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macula:
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5.5 mm area of highest acuity, more cones than rods
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* Pupil:
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light enters eye though pupil, change in size
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* Cornea:
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transparent layer; protects eye; refracts light;
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* Iris:
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muscular ring; alters size of pupil and lens using ciliary muscle and fibres
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* Lens:
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changes size in low light (larger) and bright light (smaller),
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3 layers of eye * |
* Sclera: white outer coat of eye; protective coat
* Choroid: blood supply to eye * Retina: inside of eye, light sensitive rods and cones |
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Arachnoid
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- between the inner dura matter and pia matter;
- delicate fibres allow for constant flow of CSF |
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* Subarachnoid space:
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area for CSF flow between arachnoid and pia matter
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* Efferent nerves
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* Exit the brain * electrical command from brain to muscles ( motor nerves, efference) |
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* Afferent nerves
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* enter the brain * from sense organs (visions, touch, audition) to brain ( sensory nerves, feedbacks, afference) |
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Corpus Callosum
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* 200 million connecting nerve fibres
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Left hemisphere
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* : more linear, controls speech and language, stepwise reasoning, analysis
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Right hemisphere:
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* sensitive to sensory input, auditory and visual awareness, creative abilities, spatial temporal awareness
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* Neurons
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* Neurogenesis: humans can create new neurons
* especially during interesting exercise/sports * neurons are born in the hippocampus and olfactory bulbs |
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* Glia:
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* originally thought: support cells for neurons, protect neurons etc * new findings: involved in communication vis chemical signalling vs electricity for neurons |
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* Hippocampus:
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encodes new memories; lays down long term memories; involved in learning and spatial navigation; creates new neurons
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Where is the fight or flight system |
amygdala |
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* Mamillary bodies:
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regulates memory and emotion; relays signals to the thalamus
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what two places does neurogenesis occur? |
hippocampus and olfactory bulbs |
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Henry Molaisen |
- had severe epilepsy - scientist took out his hippocampus - he was unable to lay down new memories |
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* Enterorhinal cortex:
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* center to long term memory (LTM)… in the hippocampus
* Selects transient memories for permanent storage * Encoding: signal must be persistent, new connections are forged |
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what controls fear and anxiety |
amygdala |
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circle of willis |
provides brain with glucose and oxygen if one route is blocked it can be compensated |
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CSF |
- produced in choroid plexus of ventricles - shock absorber - proteins and glucose to nourish braincells - white bloods cells to protect against infection |
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Motor Program Definition |
* “Pre structured set of movement commands that defines and shapes the movement”
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Motor Program Theory |
* Open loop control
* Two parts: executive system and effector system * No feedback or comparator mechanism (System errors not detected) * Once the motor program is learnt it is stored in long term memory |
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Open-Loop Control |
* Advance instructions specify the operations to be done
* Once program has been initiated the system executes instructions * No capability to detect or correct errors * Most effective in stable predictable environments * Open loop systems are important in predictable and stable environments * functional activities such as kicking seem to be controlled in an open loop fashion without conscious control |
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* A microwave oven as an example of Open Loop control
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* User programs time and intensity of power
* Action is executed without feedback of the temperature of the food item |
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Practice |
* Leads to learning skilled actions
* Builds more stable, precise or longer operating motor programs * Initially the motor program might only produce a short string of actions * With practice the motor program becomes more elaborate with more complex movements/behaviours * These programs are then stored in long term memory |
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4 parts of a closed loop system |
1. Executive system (controller) for making decisions about errors
2. An effector system (orders the process required) 3. Reference of correctness-feedback compared against 4. An error signal from measurement |
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Open Loop Control in the Conceptual Model |
* Most tasks are a complex blend of open and closed loop portions
* Slow movement e.g. threading a needle-closed loop portion with feedback * Fast or brief movement e.g. a punch- open loop portion will dominate |
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Open loop control is good for ______ movements |
closed |
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Evidence for Motor Programs |
* Studies of reaction time in humans
* Studies of movements initiated by startling stimuli * Deafferentation experiments (removing sensory nerve bundles) * Effects of mechanically blocking a limb * Analysis of behaviours when humans try to stop or change behaviour |
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Reaction –Time Evidence |
* Time to initiate movement increased with added complexity
* Results of studies on reaction time indicate that some action is organized in advance, as the motor program theory suggests |
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when movement is more complex the Rt time to INITIATE the movement is _____
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longer |
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Startled Reactions |
* Startle response reaction time are much faster than voluntary response to a stimulus.
* Response- contractions in muscles of face, neck and protective movements of the upper limb * In these studies participants are asked to prepare to make a rapid forceful response to an intense stimulus. Occasionally a loud sound accompanies the stimulus. * Prepared responses with loud sound (startle reaction) have RT 100ms shorter than without the loud sound. |
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Deafferentation Experiment ** On Exam |
* Deafferentation involves cutting (via surgery one or more of) an animal’s afferent nerve bundles where they enter the spinal cord.
* Studies on Monkeys by Taub et al (1976, 1968) showed: * Monkeys were still able to climb around, play, feed and groom (gross movements don’t need sensory info) * Difficulty with fine finger control (sensory is important * Minimal balance impairment |
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Human Case Studies * gun shot victims |
* Lashley (1917): gunshot wound patient with sensory feedback affected could still position knee at specific angles without feedback
* Individuals with sensory neuropathy are able to perform well as long as visual information is available * Therefore sensory information is not critical for movement production |
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Central Pattern Generator (CPG) |
* A central organization of movement in the brainstem or spinal cord. Once triggered by brain it produces a rhythmic oscillating command to muscles e.g. left then right, then left, flexion then extension etc
* Even when sensory nerves are cut the pattern still remains |
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Motor Program vs CPG |
Motor programs involve learned activities that are centrally controlled while CPG involves genetically defined activities such as locomotion, chewing and breathing
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Inhibiting Actions |
* Subject asked to stop a movement after having initiated the process of making the action
* Results support the theory of motor programs * Unless actions are stopped on time, the full action will be executed * “on time” refers to within 150-170ms before the time when movement is initiated * when movement is blocked the muscle activation is still carried out indicating there is still a planned motor program regardless if the movement is actually carried out or not |
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Effects of Mechanically Blocking a Limb |
* when movement is blocked the muscle activation is still carried out indicating there is still a planned motor program regardless if the movement is actually carried out or not
* Similar muscular organization * Onset of agonist and antagonist occur at the same times * Even though movement was blocked the antagonist still contracted as in the normal movement * Findings refute notion that feedback is required for antagonist muscle to work and support the idea of motor programs which organize movement in advance. |
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Postural Adjustments Before Action |
* Trunk movements known as anticipatory movements occur when attempting to move limbs
* These help stabilize the trunk (mid) to make limb movements more effective * EMG studies shown that when asked to move the arm quickly, lower back and leg muscles contract first before shoulder muscles * Preparatory adjustments vanish when performer leans against a support |
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Reflex – Reversal Phenomenon |
* Explains how sensory feedback can change movement from an open loop system
* response is a reflex… sensory feedback can change the outcome of motor program * Thus there is an alteration in the reflex depending on where the stimulus is applied in the step cycle |
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Limitations of the motor program theory: |
Novelty problem + Storage Problem |
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1. Novelty problem
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1. Doesn’t account for how novel movements are produced E.g. performing a variant of a tennis swing that has never been done before
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1. Storage problem;
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1. How and where are the countless number of motor programs stored? Where are all these variations stored
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Generalized Motor Program |
* Helps to explain how people produce new movements and flexible movement patterns
* Solves the storage and novelty problems with the motor program theory * Stored pattern in memory that can be adjusted at time of execution * Motor program output can be modified by changing surface features such as: Movement time, amplitude + direction...also Limbs and muscles used) |
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Aspects of a GMP: |
1. Invariant features
2. Surface features |
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1. Invariant features
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1. remain constant such as the pattern’s rhythm (relative timing) * Rhythm or relative timing is critical in music, dance and sport activities
* Temporal structuring of the pattern * Results from Armstrong (1970)- Despite different speeds, the pattern of movement appeared constant |
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1. Surface features
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1. aspects that allow changes in the same movement under different situations. Some of these are called parameters (things that can be change) * Classes of movement have specific relative timings (a unique fingerprint) such a throwing, walking, running
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Relative Timing |
* Features of a GMP that remains constant
* Rhythm of the movement pattern * these rhythms do not change despite speed or force * Example: Armstrong’s (1970) study * Subjects make a timed movement with a lever * Same movement performed at a faster speed * Results showed similar pattern-peaks appeared sooner but relative time was the same |
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* Two GMP observed here- one for walking and one for running (running has less foot contact with the ground)
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FINAL EXAM Q |
* changing pattern from on pace to another is at the center of your spinal cord NOT your brain
* you change from walking to running on treadmill because of increase speed.. no longer efficient * spinal changes to a more efficient process |
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* parameter + GMP
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* Type of surface features that determine how a movement is executed, Needs to be specified each time the movement is performed
* Movement Amplitude: Size of the movement (Handwriting phenomenon by Hollerbach (1978)) * Effectors: Limb and muscles used to execute the movement |
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Handwriting Phenomenon |
* bigger writing on board vs smaller movement on paper
* drops and peaks are similar * the relative timing stays the same * writing on cheque: smaller wrist movements (fine) * writing on the board involves different muscles (trunk, arms) * acceleration, force etc are the same * somewhere in the system there is a script * similar outcomes despite which limb you use |
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ON EXAM |
* deafferentation experiment: feed back receptor is cut, this allows for the movement to initiated but not adjusted
* CPG: reflexes that occur in the spinal cord:, involuntary, ex: like chewing gum. You don’t thing about every time you chew gum. Input triggers flexors. Input triggers flexors + extensors, tell us that a part of the movement doesn't need feedback, Open loop * Reflex reversal phenomenon : same stimulus at different phases of movement, triggers different movements |
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Learning |
* Continuous process
* Help to do generate knowledge to do other things * Occurs with practice (deliberate attempts to improve performance of a particular skill * is set of processes associated with practice leading to relatively permanent gains in the capability for new skills. |
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Motor learning definition |
* the gain in the underlying capability for skilled performance developed during practice (reflexes are not included ).
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* improved performance does not define learning. It is an indication that learning may have occured
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Learning results from practice and exercise |
* There are many factors that improve the capability for skilled performance
* Learning is only concerned with those factors related to practice * ex: the maturation and growth factors are nog evidence of learning because they are not related to practice. * Anything that happens outside of practice is not learning |
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Learning is not directly observable, but its products are |
* Brain plasticity: alterations occur in the brain which establish permanent changes in movement capability
* Plasticity is not observable |
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* Plasticity is not observable
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* brain create new connections but number of neurons stay the same
* but the number of connections increase * neuro-plasticity only occurs in the brain not spinal cord * at the spinal level no plasticity happens * everything above the spinal cord * super spinal level |
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Neuroplastic changes improve : * just know basics don't need to memorize |
* Capability in analyzing the environment
* Decision-making and movement control processing * Response selection * Automaticity with speed and accuracy * Movement feedback information processing * Selection of a more efficient GMP * Parameterization (superficial things) * Capability to choose an accurate references of correctness (need to send feedback) |
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Learning requires relatively permanent changes |
* Neuroplastic changes must be permanent to be considered as learning
* Some of the skills can be affected with temporary and transient factors |
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How is motor learning measured * warm up effect |
* Performance curves is the most common and traditional way to evaluate learning progress
* day one learning is fast and slows down * difficulty of progress: as you learn more and more your learning speed is gonna be slower * Warm up effect: you do the task and its performance is lower, start of everyday |
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Law of practice: |
* Large changes occur early in practice
* slower learning as you go on |
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* warm up is the effect at the beginning at each session (FINAL QUESTION)
* *** |
* day 1 is learning effect not warm up
* day 2 is where warm up effect starts * warm effect is variant between people |
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Limitation of performance curve |
* Performance curves are not learning curve
* Between-subject effects are masked * Within-subject variability is masked * limited because its average of all subjects * limited because there are 10 trials per individual and it averages their time * The person at end has learned the task very well |
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Aided Learning |
* If the teaching effects disappear as soon as the aid is removed, the technique can not have had much advantage
* not permanent * Aid isn’t learning (temporal effect) * No aid is actual learning (exam question) |
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Transfer designs |
* Transfer design can analyze whether a change that improves performance in practice can also improves learning (permanent vs. temporary effect)
* The temporary effect of the practice must be allowed to dissipate (delayed assessment) |
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Skill Acquistion |
* The most important factor leading to motor skill acquisition is practice.
* But practice time is not the only concern * All practice methods are not equal in their impact * ex: need to consider the different groups of muscles * specificity in your training for your certain sport is important |
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* Practice leads to the development of motor control
* The beginning guitar player goes through changes in skill progression called stages of motor learning. Different than conceptual model * Certain principles of learning apply to almost all motor learning. * Practice is more than just repetition. you wont learn anything from repetition |
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conceptual model |
* feed back = closed loop
* no feed back = open loop * the conceptual model we have developed throughout the book represents the most important components of human information-processing system that are involved in movement control * these components fluctuate due to temporary factors ( open vs closed loop? GMP ? Parametrization) * the components of the processing system become more effective and efficient with learning (swimming in the pool and then learn how to swim in the ocean) * the most effect learning occurs when a repetition activates as many of the individual components of the system as possible |
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Specificity of learning |
* Practicing in a particular environment often leads to better performance mainly in that condition.
* While an important goal of practice is to facilitate transfer, it is important to recognize that specificity of learning is the dominant characteristics. * beach volleyball vs indoor volleyball: different skills, they can do both skills but wont be as good, it has its own Motor Programming |
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Learning vs. performance during practice |
* he process of learning requires that learner change something in the movement patterning to make the performance more efficient.
* Many instructors encourage learners to “do your best” |
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Distraction from learning + solution |
* The approach to maximize performance is not effective for learning because it discourages learner from improving techniques.
* The solution is to provide two different activates during practice: practice session vs. testing sessions. * * Practice session: ask learner to avoid repeating what they did earlier * Practice-Test-Practice |
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Benefits of practice |
* goal of practice is effective performance which is “developing the capability to perform some skills on future demand.
* Other benefits of practice is to leave the learner with capabilities not so directly related to actual task proficiency! (ex: recreating the game structure by 5 sec looking at the chess board)1. Perceptual skills 2. Attention 3. Error detection |
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Perceptual skills Ex: GAme structure recreating skills in chess |
* The expert were much better than non experts at recreating the board that had a game structure. But there was no difference between experts and naive when they recreated a randomly arranged board
* the game structure was totally meaningless to the novices * the random structure: nothing to link it to, meaningless * Capability to remember briefly presented information (e.g. game structure) is specific to the skills of the observer (i.e. chess expert or naive) * So chess practice produces “perceptual advantage” that is gained with practice and experience. |
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Leavitt (1979): Ice skating with and without controlling puck * ** ON EXAM |
* Novice: poor skill.. poor performance with puck… skating time increases, all little bitt of attention is devastating.. * Adding second task (control puck) to original task (skating) will be devastating to poor skill |
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Attention |
1. reduce capacity demand: performance suffers when the overall demand exceeds the available attentional capacity
2. Reduced effector competition: Interference can arise when a task requires us to do two or more different things at the same time (this is at the level of motor programming)* for every new task your need a new motor program if you want be automatic |
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Motor program |
* Many motor skills are learned through development of motor programs
* early practice you do step by step (isolated task) * middle practice: you combine movements (semi isolated) * late practice: totally automatic = new motor skill * each athletes have signature pattern of movement… always show the same pattern of movement |
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Error detection |
* Error detection capability is another goal of practice
* Self-sufficiency is an overall goal of practice. Self detection of errors is not critical when the instructor is present. * During emergency conditions, the learner is able to detect and analyze his/her errors independently. Here is when the self-sufficiency happens * practice gives you ability to detect your errors in real life experience |
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Stages of learning |
* Learning has a series of relatively distinct stages of skill acquisition
* Stages are different from information processing stages (Chapter 2)1. Fitt`s stages 2. Bernstein`s stages |
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Fitt`s stages ( |
* These stages were designed to consider Perceptual-motor learning
* Emphasizes on both the perceptual and motor components involving skill acquisition * How the cognitive processes invested in motor * Performance as a function of practice. 1. Cognitive 2. fixation 3. autonomous |
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Stage 1: Cognitive stage |
* Learner first problem is cognitive
* Dominant questions: goal identification * Performance evaluation * Verbal and cognitive abilities are developed * Figuring out what to do based on environmental signals * Instructions (demonstration, film and verbalization) are critical * Transfer information from past learning to the initial skill level (gymnastic skills to diving) * Fast gain in skill and proficiency * Self talk works very well |
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Stage 2: fixation stage |
* do more complicated tasks and making new motor programs
* Also called associative or motor stage * Cognitive problems dealing with the environmental cues have been resolved * Focus shifts to organizing more effective movement patterns * Learner begins to build a more complex motor programs * The learner constructs ways to use movement- produced feedback. * Less inconsistencies from trial to trial * Reduced energy cost * Less self talk * Anticipation develops * Smoother and less harsh movement pattern |
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Stage 3: autonomous stage |
* Attainment of expert performance
* Much faster information processing * Longer movements are programmed. So fewer movements need to be programmed (gear shift) * Decrease of attention demand frees the individual to concentrate on higher order cognitive activities (e.g. expressing emotions, dealing with stress and chaos) * Absent of self-talk * Self-talk could be continued for higher order strategic aspects * Self confidence increases * Ability to detect and correct one`s own errors * Very slow stage because windows of adaptation are closed |
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Bernstein`s stages |
* In contrast to Fitt`s emphasis on the information processing aspects of perceptual and motor components of skill, Bernstein identified stages of learning from a combined motor control and biomechanical perspective.
1. Reduce/freeze degrees of freedom 2. release degrees of freedoms 3. Exploit Passive Dynamics |
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Stage 1: Reduce/freezing degrees of freedom |
* beginner trying to eliminated degrees of freedom and focus on one thing (balance)
* Degree of freedom: one (out of all of the ways) in which various muscles and joints are free to move during performing a given task. * The initial problem facing the learner is how to control all of the possible degrees of freedom of a movement. * Learner should reduce the movement nonessential or redundant body parts in initial stage. * Freezing the degrees of freedom is the same goal as Fitts fist stage |
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Stage 2: Release degrees of freedom |
* As control of a maximum number of degrees of freedom is achieved in stage 1, the learner needs to improve performance by releasing some of the frozen degrees of freedom.
* This is essential in tasks that require power or speed |
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Stage 3. Exploit Passive Dynamics |
* Passive Dynamics: The energy and motion come for free with the help of physics to improve effectiveness.
* E.g. Gravity, spring-like characteristics of muscle and momentum. * In this stage the effectiveness (achieving end result with max assuredness) and efficiency (minimum outlay of energy) are improved |
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Skill retention |
* After a period of time during which no further practice is undertaken, forgetting motor skills may occur.
* Swimming vs. gymnastic skills * Why?; when the number of motor programs is increases the more likely you are to forget it (gymnastics) |
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Light switch combinations (Neumann and Ammons, 1957) |
* DISCRETE task ** Exam
* plateau * 1 group had to do a task 1 minuet after learning = no forgetting happens * ex: warm up effect.... never have to relearn something (because of neural plasticity) need to warm up to recover memories |
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* for long continuous and serial tasks you will remember stuff without needing warm up
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type of task influences retention performance |
* Long term retention depends largely on the nature of the task (discrete vs. continuous)
* Discrete task, particularly those with a relatively large cognitive components are forgetting relatively quicker. * Regardless of the type of the task, amount of original practice is a determining factor. |
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Warm up decrement |
* The initial depression in motor activity at the very start of performance (it is not a physiological warm up)
* This type of depression in performance is different from regular retention deficit (it is attributed to psychological activities, states or adjustment of e.g. attention, mood, posture * In this case the performer does not forget things but it takes time to get into a proper rhythm or mood to support the optimal performance |
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Skill Transfer |
* major reason we practice is to transfer on skill to another task
* Skill transfer is also called generalization * Learning acquired during practice of a given task can be applied to, or transferred to, other tasks. * The goal is to acquire the ability to generalize a specific learning to many novel variations of the task (Various tennis strokes). * Positive vs. Negative transfer |
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Mechanisms explaining the skill transfer |
1. Transfer and similarity
2. Fundamental movement patterning 3. Perceptual elements 4. Strategic and conceptual similarities |
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Transfer and similarity |
* Transfer of learning between two tasks increases as the similarity between them increase ( could be due to existence of Identical element)
* However, the concepts of “similarity” and “identical elements” have never been defined explicitly. |
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Fundamental movement pattern |
* Practicing a variant of the class of movement sharing the same general pattern, the learner should be able to transfer the learning to any other variant using this same pattern
* E.g. Over-arm pattern of throwing, spiking and tennis stroke |
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Perceptual elements |
* Similarity in perceptual elements underlying different tasks.
* E.g. Learning to intercept a flying balls of various kinds (hand-eye coordination) |
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Strategic and conceptual similarities |
* Similarities in strategies, rules, guidelines or concepts
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Motor transfer as learning progress |
* The transfer principles apply best when the learner is just beginning to learn a skill
* Based on principle of specificity, the amount of transfer from earlier learning should drop markedly when the learner becomes more highly skill * The skill becomes more specific and shares less with other skills of the same movement type * the best gymnasts in the world could not become the best diver in the world but… a child in gymnastics could become the best diver in the world |
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No transfer of basic abilities |
* Fundamental abilities MAY NOT be trained through various drills
* Attempts to modify an ability with a nonspecific drill are usually ineffective |
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Transfer of part practice to whole practice |
* Enormously complex task (e.g. gymnastic routine) can not be instructed as a whole unit.
* The task should be divided in meaningful units for separate practice * The goal is to integrate the units. * need to consider the different kinds of skills |
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Serial skills of long duration + part practice |
* In Serial skills, practicing the specific subtasks (i.e. isolated) is usually effective in transferring to whole sequences, if the errors of one part do not influence the action of the next part.
* However, in sport specific skills which performance of one part determines the movement that must be made on the next part, the interactions between parts of the whole skill cannot be practiced and learned in isolated part practice. * need to generate different GMPs for different tasks in serial skills * 2 tasks with different program… but if task 1 effects task 2 you need to have another motor program etc * your can practice one part separately and another separately |
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Discrete skills of short duration + part practice |
* Practicing parts of a discrete task in isolation may transfer little if at all to whole task especially if the task is rapid and ballistic.
* Negative transfer (if isolated practice interferes with the motor programming of whole task (which needs an open loop motor programming)) * you can’t practice separate tasks * the whole task can only have 1 motor program |
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Motor program and specificity |
* According to open-loop motor program theory, quick actions are programmed in advance and run without feedback control.
* Programming only an isolated part of the task may have adverse effect on whole task performance particularly if the part has different dynamics when is performed in isolation (requiring different motor programming) * Based on the Henry`s (1968) theory of open loop motor control and specificity of movement, isolating a part of a task and practice it separately shifts the underlying abilities to the point that it is no longer related to the original part in the context of the whole skill. |
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What is the solution for motor programming and specificity |
* Progressive part practice.
* For very rapid action, some part practice might be helpful because sequencing of the whole task might be difficult for the learner. * In this method the parts of a complex skill are presented separately but the parts are integrated into larger and larger parts. * if you have any new task you need new motor programs |
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Off - Task Practice Considerations |
* Instructions
* Demonstration * Mental Practice |
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Motivation |
* An unmotivated learner is not likely to practice therefore there might be little or no learning … if you're not interested you won’t care
* Intrinsic motivation: a drive to learn a skill * 1. |
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* Intrinsic motivation is determined by three basic needs:
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1. Autonomy: Control of one’s own destiny
2. Competence: Skill mastery ( I am going to get better) 3. Relatedness: being accepted within social context (need relevance) |
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Goal Setting |
* Learners are encouraged to adopt specific performance goals
* Results showed that the specific goal group improved in performance compared to the “do your best” group. * Goals should be specific, challenging (but not impossible) |
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Augmented feedback |
* Augmented feedback- information that is provided to the learner from an external source
* Positive augmented feedback can provide a boost in motor learning (even with false feedback) |
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Positive vs Negative Feedback |
* Lewthwaite and Wulf (2010)
* Three groups on a balance task- * false positive feedback (20% more accurate), * false negative (20% less accurate) * control * Positive feedback provided a boost to learning (release dopamine: good feeling, improve performance = learning) * No significant difference between control (no comparative feedback) and false negative feedback ( release serotonin, = decreases performance = not learning |
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Self –Regulation of Practice |
* Self – regulation: giving learners ownership over some components of practice
* Having some control over the learning environment can influence motivation and enhance learning * Satisfies a need for autonomy * involve the person in practice: How do you want to do this, what do you think is the best way to learn it, what goals are important to you, what do you want to practice first |
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Instruction |
* Instruction can be spoken, written or demonstrated
* Information about how to carry out a procedure * What is likely to happen * Demonstration: “Do this” might be more appropriate in certain situations E.g. Try describing how to tie a shoe lace |
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Attentional Focus Study |
* Where the learner places their focus also effects their learning
* balance on board * External group: had external feedback, stand on board and keep the the bottle horizontal * Internal: feedback …group told to keep their hands horizontal * External feedback had less error * Keep your eyes on the target = external feedback * External feedback may be better for learning and performance |
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Mental Practice |
* Rehearsing the skills to be learned mentally (without actual physical practice)
* Mental practice (imagining the action) produces minute contractions of participating musculature * Evidence shows that mental practice procedures generate motor learning * Enhances performance… preparation… type of warm up |
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Organizing Practice and Rest |
* How many days per weeks should the skill be practiced, how much practice each day and amount of rest?
* Studies show: Retention was poorest with the 2 hrs, twice /day group.... Best retention- 1hr once/day * For continuous tasks, longer rest periods leads to more skilled performance during practice |
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Final Question |
* external feedback distracts from internal feedback
* If i ask you to go back and think it about it will interfere with the automaticity |
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Variable Versus Constant Practice |
* Goal of practice is to produce the highest level of skill in all situations
* Challenge when practice situation differs from actual real life situation * Practice should prepare the leaner for different situations * What features of practice allow the leaner to perform task in novel situation? GMP |
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Schema Theory |
* Learner acquires a set of rules called schemas
* Schemas are associated with surface features (distance, speed etc.) * She has GMP for throwing the football a certain distance but her brain calculates when the distance is further. A force distance relationship in the brain |
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Variable Practice and Learning |
* Comparing constant practice (practicing one single member of a class of task) and variable
* Variable practice enhances schema development, allowing more effective novel task performance in the future. * variable practice different distances and speed etc * acquire skill faster and allowed to perform a lot better * Constant group did better during acquisition phase * When asked to do a novel version of the task, variable group do task more skillfully |
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Exception to Benefits of Variable Practice |
* Variable practice might not be efficient in situations that require only one single version of the task, if you what only one version of a task so you only practice that way
* Jump shots- usually taken anywhere on the court * Set shots-typically only taken at foul or free throw line * Set-shots performance showed an advantage from the foul or free throw line |
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Blocked practice
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* : All trials of a given task (for that day) are completed before moving on to the next task.
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Random (interleaved) practice
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* : The order of practiced tasks are mixed across the practice period.
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Blocked Versus Random Practice |
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Study Results: Acquisition of skill -Block order group better, but for retention the random order group was better |
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Benefits of random practice due to: |
1. leaner more actively engaged in the learning process by preventing simple repetition of actions.
2. gives the learner more meaningful and distinguishable memories of the various task (increase in memory strength). 3. causes the learner to forget the short term solutions to the movement problem after each task change. 4. Forgetting the short- term solutions forces the leaner to generate the solution again on the task’s next trial, which is beneficial to learning |
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Natural vs Artifical Feedback |
Feedbacks could be natural (i.e. exteroceptors and proprioceptors) * Feedbacks could artificial (i.e. performer`s score on score board or verbal comments of a coach) |
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Feedback Classification |
* augmented feedback: reaction of the crowd
* before the movement: observation of video of you playing * during the movement: running and your coach says go faster (guidance… concurrent) * after the movement: coach tells you what you to do, see your scores * movement planning: anticipation, parameter selection * before you start your coach tells you how to plan and anticipated and select * when the instructor gives you during the movement may not be helpful * instruction after helps for next performance…. learning process |
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Augmented feedback |
1. Also know as Extrinsic Feedback
2. Artificial information from the measured performance outcome. 3. It is over and above that contained in naturally available inherent feedback 4. It can be given or not given. 5. Given at different forms, times. 6. information your coach decides to give you |
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Augmented feedback + Closed Loop |
* proprioceptive and exteroceptive system sends feedback at the same time back to the Comparator
* Closed loop because of feed back * augmented feedback is effective after movement * there is a delay between proprioceptive/exteroceptive feedback and augmented feedback (time the coach provides information) * even during before and after information given by the coach is based on a delay from past performance |
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Knowledge of results (KR) |
* Information about the success of an action with respect to the environmental goal
* Sometimes KR is a duplication of the information that the performer would receive by inherent system anyway (e.g. missing a free throw in basketball). |
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Knowledge of Performance (KP) |
* Kinetics (related to force) … Kinematics (related to movement)
* Also known as “Kinematic feedback” * Information about movement pattern * Use in real world setting |
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In real world settings, augmented feedback operates in four interdependent ways: |
1. Energizes the learner to increase effort (motivation)
2. Provide information about errors as a basis for correction 3. Direct the learner attention toward the movement or the movement goal 4. Create a dependency leading to problems at feedback withdrawal |
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Similarities and differences between KR + KP |
* Similarities: verbal, augmented , provided after movement usually
* KR: information about goal outcome, often redundant with inherent feedback, usually provided as a score, often used in laboratory research * KP: information about movement pattern, usually distinct from inherent feedback, usually kinematic info, often provided in everyday activities |
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* FINAL EXAM ex: maximal voluntary force output (KR, need numbers) vs a a basketball free throw (everyday life… we do not need much information about task KP)
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Motivational properties |
* “Keep it going, you are doing very well”
* Augmented feedback (i.e. KR and KP) can enhance proficiency via acting as a kind of stimulant to energize the learner. * out of trails the KR good (what they didi right) improved performance compared to KR of poor (what they did wrong) |
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Information properties |
* The most important component of feedback for motor learning is the information property (i.e. direct feedback about errors used for modifying future performance).
* Property of information (what kind, what form, when feedback, how often) * What kind of information should be given(Kinematics, timing, coordination)? * What form of feedback (verbal,video plays, graphically) * When can feedback be presented (immediate or delayed) * How often can it be presented (all trials, some trials) |
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Attentional focus property |
* The performance and learning are enhanced when the learner`s attention is directed to the goal achievement (i.e. called external focus attention)
* The knowledge of result (KR) directs the learner to think about externally-directed information. * The knowledge of performance (KP) is about the nature of the movement such as spatial and temporal form of the action (an internally-focus process). * How can KP be used without the detrimental impact of an internally focused attention? * Attentional focus should be towards his scoring (KR) instead of his free-throw form (KP) during game * During practice attentional focus should be on his KP instead of KR |
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Dependency producing property |
* Guidance hypothesis (Salmonni,etal.1984):If feedback is provided very frequently, the learner becomes dependent on the guidance allowing performance to deteriorate when the guidance is removed.
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To decide what error is most fundamental and focus the feedback on that. |
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Precision of feedback (Qualitative) |
* This is based on the level of accuracy with which the feedback describes the movement outcome
* It depends on learner skills (A beginner does not have the movement control precision to correct the movement specified by the feedback) * e.g. “your throw was a little too far” vs. “your throw was half a meter too far” * Level of accuracy is very limited for beginner… so need to adjust feedback based on their performance + skill |
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Augmented feedback from video replays |
* any kind of feedback will improve performance
* Video was slightly better than KR * Video with correcting cues is better than KR or just the video * correcting cues: focus on action as a whole * Athlete needs (especially beginner) should focus on the action as a whole instead of focus on a small part of the action |
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* Absolute frequency of feedback:
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* total number of feedback presentations given to a learner across a set of trials in practice:
* 100 feedbacks for 400 trials = 100 |
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* Relative frequency of feedback
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* percentage of trials receiving feedback (considering number of trials)
* 100 feedbacks for 400 trials = 25% |
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Blank trials |
* Trials which subject does not receive feedback on them
* Are these trials waste of time? No * figure shows group that with 50% of trails with feedback performed better * The subject is too dependent on feedback and can’t correct their movement themselves |
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Faded feedback (quantitative and qualitative) |
* gradually reducing the relative frequency of the augmented feedback (Winstein and Schemidt, 1990)
* In order to prevent learner from developing a dependency on the feedbacks * This technique could be used more with advance skills * the feedback characteristics move from general to tailored feedbacks * if you can get information on visual system the coach should not give the same feedback… makes the subject too dependent. |
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Bandwidth feedback (quantitative and qualitative) |
* This method is based on the preset degree of acceptability of performance.
* determine size of targets and than observe the performance (determine acceptable performance and which needs feedback) * Performance of acceptability is dependent on their skill level * Novice gets encouragement instead of feedback * A positive feedback (e.g. good job) is given when the performance is satisfactory * The key issue in this technique: is deciding what level of error tolerance is appropriate for a learner |
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* Benefits of band width- feedback method:
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1. Standardizes the faded-feedback frequency method
2. Standardizes and increases frequency of reward feedback 3. Fosters more stable and consistent actions |
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Summary feedback |
* feedback for the entire series of trials is summarized (e.g. in a form of a graph) for the learner.
* Summary feedback is the KP * Quality (KP) |
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* Benefits of Summary Feedback
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1. Summary feedback is more effective for learning than every-trial feedback
2. It prevents the detrimental effect of every-trial feedback (i.e. feedback dependency) 3. It encourages learners to analyze their inherent feedbacks |
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What is an optimal number of trials to include in summary feedback reports |
* performance was best with 5 trials for delayed retention
* if there are too many trials the performance is not as good |
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Average feedback |
* Learner receives average score on those trials instead of trial- by-trial (e.g. “your backswing was about 6 inches to short on the last 10 trials”)
* Average feedback is KR * get average of your results * Qualitative (KR) * 15 trials was not good * 5 trials was best for retention |
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Who should determined feedback schedules? |
* when learner chose the frequency of feedback the performance was a lot better
* let the performer analyzes their own feedback.. let them choose when to get feedback |
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When to give feedback? |
* give concurrent feedback during movement (guidance)
* when movement finishes there should be a delay in feedback so the performer can analyze * after the delay give feedback * after feedback give delay to let the performer to analyze feedback |
